General
More on immune evasion strategies of cancer
More on DNA vaccines and adjuvants
CytokinesInstitute for Inflammation Research
The Toshio Hirano Lab Homepage
The International Cytokine Society
International Society for Interferon and Cytokine Research
The Cytokine Family cDNA Database
The Cytokine Immunogenetics Group at University of Glasgow Department of Surgery
COPE: Cytokines Online Pathfinder Encyclopaedia
Cytokine Laboratory, University of Delaware
Antigen Processing/Presentation
The Sanger Center: Human Chromosome 6
Homepage of Dr. John Lambris of Upenn (studies interactions between pathogens and complement system - check out his "Research Interests" section)
Essentials of Immunology (online CD-ROM program with cool complement graphics)
CMV
CMV link 4 (scroll down, listed under betaherpesviridae)
Back to Immune Evasion Strategies HOME
References
| Introduction | Complement |
| Cytokines | Cytomegalovirus |
| Antigen Processing/Presentation |
Introduction
Damian, R. 1997. Parasite immune evasion and exploitation: reflection and projections. Parasitology. 115 Suppl: S169-75.
Davis-Poynter, N., and H. Farrell. 1996. Masters of deception: A review of herpesvirus immune evasion strategies. Immunology and Cell Biology. 74:513-22.
Ploegh, H. 1998. Viral Strategies of Immune Evasion. Science. 280:248-53.
Ahmed R, Morrison LA and Knipe DM: Persistence of viruses. In Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM et al. (ed): Fundamental Virology 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1996.
Chow Y, Chiang B, Lee Y, Chi W, Lin W, Chen Y, Tao M: Development of Th1 and Th2 populations and the nature of immune responses to Hepatitis B Virus DNA vaccines can be modulated by codelivery of various cytokine genes. Journal of Immunology 160: 1320-1329, 1998.
Hirano T, Nakajima K and Hibi M: Signalling mechanisms through gp130: a model of the cytokine system. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews 8:241-252, 1997.
Kieff E: Epstein-Barr virus and its replication. In Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM et al. (ed): Fundamental Virology 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1996.
Kuby J: Immunology, 3rd ed. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1997.
Marrack P and Kappler J: Subversion of the immune system by pathogens. Cell 76: 323-332, 1994.
Moore K, Vierra P, Fiorentino D et al.: Homology of cytokine synthesis inhibitory factor (IL-10) to the Epstein-Barr virus gene BCRF1. Science 248:1230-1234, 1990.
Okano M, Thiele GM, Davis JR, Grierson HL, Purtilo DT: Epstein-Barr virus and human disease: recent advances in diagnosis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 1: 300-312, 1988.
Romagnani S: Human TH1 and TH2 subsets: doubt no more. Immunology Today 12(8): 256-257, 1991.
Shearer G and Clerici M: Vaccine strategies: selective elicitation of cellular or humoral immunity? Trends in Biotechnology 15(3): 106-109, 1997.
Swaminathan S and Kieff E: The role of BCRF1/vIL-10 in the life cycle of Epstein-Barr virus. In McFadden G (ed): Viroceptors, Virokines and Related Immune Modulators Encoded by DNA Viruses. Austin: R.G. Landes, 1994.
Antigen Processing/Presentation
Bogdan, C., and M. Rollinghoff. 1998. The immune response to Leishmania:mechanisms of parasite control and evasion. International Journal of Parasitology 28:121-34.
Collins, K., B. Chen, S. Kalams, B. Walker, and D. Baltimore. 1998. HIV-1 Nef protein protects infected primary cells against killing by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Nature. 391:397-401.
Burgert, H. 1996. Subversion of the MHC I antigen-presentation pathway by adenovirus and herpes simplex virus. Trends in Microbiology. 4:107-112.
Damian, R. 1997. Parasite immune evasion and exploitation: reflection and projections. Parasitology. 115 Suppl: S169-75.
Davis-Poynter, N., and H. Farrell. 1996. Masters of deception: A review of herpesvirus immune evasion strategies. Immunology and Cell Biology. 74:513-22.
Hengel, H., W. Brune, and U. Koszinowski. 1998. Immune evasion by cytomegalovirus - survival strategies of a highly adapted opportunist. Trends in Microbiology. 6:190-7.
Hill, A. 1996. Mechanisms of interference with the MHC class I-restricted pathway of antigen presentation by herpesviruses. Immunology and Cell Biology. 74:523-6.
Kuby J: Immunology, 3rd ed. New York: W. H. Freeman, 1997.
Luder, C., T. Lang, B. Beuerle, and U. Gross. 1998. Downregulation of MHC class II molecules and inability to upregulate class I molecules in murine macrophages after infection with Toxoplasma gondii. Clinical Experimental Immunology. 112:308-16.
McMichael, A. 1997. How viruses hide from T cells. Trends in Microbiology. 5:211-3.
Ploegh, H. 1998. Viral Strategies of Immune Evasion. Science. 280:248-53.
Sanz-Parra, A., F. Sobrino, and V. Ley. 1998. Infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus results in a rapid reduction of MHC surface expression. Journal of General Virology. 79:433-6.
Stenger, S., K. Niazi, and R. Modlin. 1998. Downregulation of CD1 on antigen-presenting cells by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Journal of Immunology. 161:3582-8.
Vora, A., S. Rodgers, A. Parker, R. Start, and A. Murray. 1997. An immunohistochemical study of altered immunomodulatory molecule expression in head and neck squammous cell carcinoma. British Journal of Cancer. 76:836-44.
| Introduction and General: |
Kuby J. 1997. Immunology, 3rd ed. New York: W. H. Freeman. |
Merralls, S. (1995) The role of complement in the elimination of microorganisms. Available: http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/WWW/Merralls/Merralls.html [1999, March13] |
Reese, AC and Dolen, WK. (No date) Essentials of Immunology, [CD ROM] Available: http://www.imonline.gsm.com/ [1999, March 20] |
Smith LC, Chang L, Britten RJ, Davidson EH. 1996. Sea urchin genes expressed in activated coelomocytes are identified by expressed sequence tags. Complement homologues and other putative immune response genes suggest immune system homology within the deuterostomes. Journal of Immunology. 156:593-602. |
| Immune Evasion Strategies: |
| General: |
Campbell RD, Law SKA, Reid KBM, Sim RB. 1988. Structure, organization and regulation of the complement genes. Annual Review of Immunology. 6: 161-95. |
Cooper, N. 1991. Complement evasion strategies of microorganisms. Immunology Today. 12(9):327-31 |
| Herpes: |
Albrecht JC, Fleckentstein B. 1992. New member of the multigene family of complement control proteins in herpesvirus saimiri. Journal of Virology. 66:3937-40. |
Eisenberg RJ, Ponce de Leon M, Friedman HM, Fries L, Frank MM, Hastings J, Cohen GH. 1987. Complement component C3b binds directly to purified glycoprotein C of herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2. Microbial Pathogenesis. 3:423-35. |
Friedman HM, Wang L, Fishman NO, Lambris JD, Eisenberg RJ, Cohen GH, Lubinsky J. 1996. Immune evasion properties of herpes simplex virus type 1 glycoprotein gC. Journal of Virology. 70:4253-60. |
Fries LF, Friedman HM, Cohen GH, Eisenberg RJ, Hammer CH, Frank MM. 1986. Glycoprotein C of herpes simplex virus 1 is an inhibitor of the complement cascade. Journal of Immunology. 137:1636-41. |
Harris SL, Frank I, Yee A, Cohen GH, Eisenberg RJ, Friedman HM. 1990. Glycoprotein gC of herpes simplex virus type 1 prevents complement-mediated cell lysis and virus neutralization. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 162:331-37. |
Hung SL, Peng C, Kostavasili I, Friedman HM, Lambris JD, Eisenberg RJ, Cohen GH. 1994. The interaction of glycoprotein C of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 with the alternative complement pathway. Virology. 203:299-312. |
Kostavasil I, Sahu A, Friedman HM, Eisenberg RJ, Cohen GH, Lambris JD. 1997. Mechanism of complement inactivation by glycoprotein C of herpes simplex virus. Journal of Immunology. 158:1763-71. |
McNearney TA, Odell C, Holers VM, Spear PG, Atkinson JP. 1987. Herpes simplex virus glycoproteins gC-1 and gC-2 bind to the third component of complement and provide protection against complement mediated neutralization of viral infectivity. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 166:1525-35. |
Mold C, Bradt BM, Nemerow GR, Cooper NR. 1989. Epstein-Barr virus regulates activation and processing of the third component of complement. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 168:949-69 |
Rother RP, Rollins SA, Fodor WL, Albrecht JC, Setter E, Fleckenstein B, Squinto SP. 1994. Inhibition of complement-mediated cytolysis by the terminal complement inhibitor of herpesvirus saimiri. Journal of Virology. 68:730-37. |
Seidel-Dugan C, Ponce de Leon M, Friedman HM, Fries LF, Frank MM, Hastings JC, Cohen GH. 1988. C3b receptor activity on transfected cells expressing glycoprotein C of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2. Journal of Virology. 62:4027-36. |
Ward PL and Roizman B. Evasion and obstruction: The central strategy of the interaction of human herpesviruses with host defenses. In Herpesviruses and Immunity. Medveczky et al. (Eds.) Plenum Press: New York, 1998. |
| Vaccinia: |
Isaacs SN, Kotwal GJ, Moss B. 1992. Vaccinia virus complement-control protein prevents antibody-dependent complement-enhanced neutralization of infectiviy and contributes to virulence. Proccedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 89:628-32. |
Kotwal GJ and Moss B. 1988. Vaccinia virus encodes a secretory polypeptide structurally related to complement control proteins. Nature. 335:176-78. |
Kotwal, GJ, Isaacs SN, McKenzie R, Frank MM, MossB. 1990. Inhibition of the complement cascade by the major secretory protein of vaccinia virus. Science. 250:827-30. |
McKenzie R, Kotwal GJ, Moss B, Hammer CH, Frank MM. 1992. Regulation of complement activity by vaccinia virus complement control protein. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 166:1245-50. |
Miller CG, Shchelkunov SN, Kotwal GJ. 1997. The cowpox virus-encoded homolog of the vaccinia virus complement control protein is an inflammation modulatory protein. Virology. 229:126-33. |
Sahu A, Issacs SN, Soulika AM, Lambris JD. 1998. Interaction of vaccinia virus complement control protein with human complement proteins: factor I-mediated degradation of C3b to iC3b1 inactivates the alternative complement pathway. Journal of Immunology. 160(11):5596-604. |
| T. Cruzi: |
Joiner KA, daSilva WD, Rimoldi MT, Hammer CH, Sher A, Kipnis TL. 1988. Biochemical characterization of a factor produced by trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi that accelerates the decay of complement C3 convertases. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 263(23):11327-35. |
Norris KA, Bradt B, Cooper NR, So M. 1991. Characterization of a Trypanosoma cruzi C3 binding protein with functional and genetic similarities to the human complement regulatory protein, decay-accelerating factor. Journal of Immunology. 147(7):2240-47. |
| HIV: |
Marschang P, Sodroski J, Wurzner R, Dierich MP. 1995. Decay-accelerating factor (CD55) protects human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from inactivaation by human complement. European Journal of Immunology. 25(1):285-90. |
Pinter C, Siccardi AG, Lopalco L, Longhi R, Clivio A. 1995. HIV glycoprotein 41 and complement factor H interact with each other and share functional as well as antigenic homology. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses. 11:971-80. |
Saifuddin M, Parker CJ, Peeples ME, Gorny MK, Zolla-Pazner S, Ghassemi M, Rooney IA, Atkinson JP, Spear GT. 1995. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 182:501-09. |
Stoiber H, Ebenbichler C, Schneider R, Janatova J, Dierich MP. 1995. Interaction of several complement proteis with gp120 and gp41, the two envelope glycoproteins of HIV-1. AIDS. 9:19-26. |
Stoiber H, Pinter C, Siccardi AG, Clivio A, Dierich MP. 1996. Efficient destruction of huan immunodeficiency virus in human serum by inhibiting the protective action of complement factor H and decay accelerating factor (DAF, CD55). Journal of Experimental Medicine. 183:307-10. |
| Other Pathogens: |
Edwards JE Jr, Gaither TA, O'Shea JJ, Rotrosen D, Lawley TJ, Wright SA, Frank MM, Green I. 1986. Expression of specific binding sites on Candida with functional and antigenic characteristics of human complement receptors. Journal of Immunology. 137:3577-83. |
Kharazmi A and Nielsen H. 1991. Inhibition of human monocyte chmotaxis and chemiluminescence by Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase. APMIS. 99:93-5. |
van den Berg RH, Faber-Krol MC, van de Klundert JA, van Es LA, Daha MR. 1996. Inhibition of the hemolytic activity of the first component of complement C1 by an Escherichia coli C1q binding protein. Journal of Immunology. 156:4466-73. |
| Vaccine Strategies: |
Stoiber H, Clivio A, Dierich MP. 1997. Role of complement in HIV infection. Annual Review of Immunology. 15:649-74. |
Kotwal GJ, Blasco R, Miller CG, Kuntz S, Jayaraman S, Shchelkunov. Microbes: Important consideration in the development of live vaccines. In Symposium in Immunology VII. Huber et al. (eds). Springer: Berlin, 1998. |
Muster T, Steindl F, Purtscher M, Trkola A, Klima A, Himmler G, Ruker F, Katinger H. 1993. A conserved neutralizing epitope on gp41 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Journal of Virology. 11:6642-47. |
1 Plotkin SA. Vaccines for varicella-zoster virus and Cytomegalovirus: recent progress. Science 1994;265:1383-1385
2 Gautheret AD, Aubin JT, Poirel L et. al. Detection of human Betaherpesvirinae in saliva and urine from immunocompromised and immunocompetent subjects. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 1997;35:1600-1603.
3 Tierney EL, McPhee SJ, and Papadakis MA. Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment, Thirty-eighth edition. Appleton and Lange, Stamford CT, 1999. Pages 1263-1264.
4 Textbook of medicine. Edited by James B. Wyngaarden MD and Lloyd H Smith MD. 1988. SB Saunders Company, Philadelphia. P. 1784-1786.
5 Kashden J, Frison S, Fowler K et. al. Intellectual assessment of children with asymptomatic congenital Cytomegalovirus infection. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 1998;19:254-259.
6 Scholz M, Rabenau HF, Doerr HW, et. al. CMV-Related Immunopathology. New York: Karger, 1998.
7 Robain M, Carre N, Dussaix E. Incidence and sexual risk factors of Cytomegalovirus seroconversion in HIV-infected subjects. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 1998;25:476-480.
8 Hirsch MS. Cytomegalovirus Infection. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 13th ed.. McGraw Hill Inc., St. Louis, 1994. Pages 794-797.
9 Jonjic S, Delvar M, Keil GM, et. al. A nonstructrual viral protein expressed by a recombinant vaccinia virus protects against lethal Cytomegalovirus infection. Journal of Virology 1988;62:1653-1658.
10 Porath A, McNutt RA, Smiley LM, et. al. Effectiveness and cost benefit of a proposed live Cytomegalovirus vaccine in the prevention of congenital disease. Reviews of infectious diseases 1990;12:31-40.
11 Mazeron MC. Neonatal consequences of STDs- What to do in case of Cytomegalovirus-infection. Medecine et Maladies Infectieuses. 1994;24:485-495.
12 Britt W, Fay J, Seals J, et. al. Formulation of an immunogenic human Cytomegalovirus vaccine- responses in mice. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1995;171:18-25.
13 Adler SP, Hempfling SH, Starr SE. Safety and immunogenicity of the Towne strain Cytomegalovirus vaccine. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 1998;17:200-206.
14 Alder SP. Cytomegalovirus and Pregnancy. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1992;4:670-675.
15 Gilbert MJ, Riddell SR, Plachter B, et. al. Cytomegalovirus selectively blocks antigen processing and presentation of its immediate-early gene product. Nature 1996;383:720-722.
16 Jones TR, Wiertz EJHJ, Sun L, et. al. Human Cytomegalovirus US3 impairs transport and maturation of major histocompatibility complex class I heavy chains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 1996;93:11327-11333.
17 Wiertz EJHJ, Tortorella D, Bogyo M, et. al. Sec61-mediated transfer of a membrane protein from the endoplasmic reticulum to the proteasome for destruction. Nature 1996;384:432-438.
18 Sun L, Bogyo M, Geuze HJ, et. al. The human Cytomegalovirus US11 gene product dislocates MHC class I heavy chains from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol. Cell 1996;84:769-779.
19 Jones TR, Hanson LK, Sun L, et. al. Multiple independent loci within the human Cytomegalovirus unique short region down-regulate expression of major histocompatibility complex class-I heavy chains. Journal of Virology 1995;69:4830-4841.
20 Lehner PJ, Karttunen JT, Wilkinson GWG, et. al. The human Cytomegalovirus US6 glycoprotein inhibits transporter associated with antigen processing-dependent peptide translocation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 1997;94:6904-6909.
21 Gilbert MJ, Riddell SR, Greenberg PD. Selective interference with class-I major histocompatability complex presentation of the major intermediate-early protein following infection with human Cytomegalovirus. Journal of Virology, 1993;67:3461-3469.
22 Hengel H, Brune W, and Koszinowski UH. Immune evasion by Cytomegalovirus- survival strategies of a highly adapted opportunist. Trends in Microbiology 1998;6:190-197.
23 Hengel H, Lucin P, Jonjic S, et. al. Restoration of Cytomegalovirus antigen presentation by gamma-interferon comtats viral escape. Journal of Virology 1994; 68: 289-297.
24 Geginat G, Ruppert T, Hengel H, et. al. IFN-gamma is a prerequisite for optimal antigen processing of viral peptides in vivo. Journal of Immunology 1997;158: 3303-3310.
25 Hengel H, Esslinger C, Pool J, et. al. Cytokines restore MHC class-I complex formation and control antigen presentation in human Cytomegalovirus-infected cells. Journal of General Virology 1995;76:2987-2997.
26 Groettrup M, Soza A, Eggers M. A role for the proteasome regulator PA28 alpha in antigen presentation. Nature 1996;381:166-168.
27 Hengel H, Lucin P, Jonjic S, et. al. Restoration of Cytomegalovirus antigen presentation by gamma-interferon combats viral escape. Journal of Virology 1994; 68: 289-297.
28 H. Hengel and G. Genginat, unpublished data.
29 Warren AP, Ducroq DH, Lehner PJ, et. al. Human Cytomegalovirus-infected cells have unstable assembly of major histocompatibility complex class-I complexes and are resistant to lysis by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. Journal of Virology 1994;68:2822-2829.
30 Fahnestock ML, Johnson JL, Feldman RMR, et. al. The MHC class-I homologue encoded by human Cytomegalovirus binds endogenous peptides. Immunity 1995;3:583-590.
31 Stannard LM and Hardie DR. An Fc receptor for human immunoglobulin-G is located within the tegument of human Cytomegalovirus. Journal of Virology 1991;65:3411-3415.
32 Cosman D, Fanger N, Borges L, et. al. A novel immunoglobulin superfamily receptor for cellular and viral MHC class I molecules. Immunity 1997;7:273-282.
33 Farrell HE, Vally H, Lynch DM, et. al. Inhibition of natural killer cells by a Cytomegalovirus MHC class I homologue in vivo. Nature 1997;386:510-514.
34 Warren AP, Owens CN, Borysiewicz LK, et. al. Downregulation of integrin
a 1/b 1 expression and association with cell rounding in human Cytomegalovirus-infected fibroblasts. Journal of General Virology 1994;75:3319-3325.35 Kuby J. Immunology, 3rd edition. W.H. Freeman and company, New York, 1997. Page 508.
36 Biron CA and Ahmed R. Immunity to Viruses. Chapter 39 in Fundamental Immunology, Fourth Edition. Edited by Paul WE, Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, 1991.
37 Kondo K, Xu JK, Mocarski ES. Human Cytomegalovirus latent gene expression in granulocyte-macrophage progenitors in culture and in seropositive individuals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 1996;93:11137-11142.
38 Soderberg NC, Fish KN, Nelson JA. Reactivation of latent human Cytomegalovirus by allogeneic stimulation of blood cells from healthy donors. Cell 1997;91:119-126.
39 Ibanez CE, Schrier R, Ghanzal P. Human Cytomegalovirus productively infects primary differentiated macrophages. Journal of Virology 1991;65:6581-6588.
40 Fish KN, Britt W, Nelson JA. A novel mechanism for persistence of human Cytomegalovirus in macrophages. Journal of Virology 1996;70:1855-1862.
41 Fish KN, Britt W, and Nelson JA. A novel mechanism for persistence of human Cytomegalovirus in macrophages. Journal of Virology 1996;70:1855-1862.
42 Woodroffe SB, Garnett HM, and Danis VA. Interlukin-1 production and cell-activation responses to Cytomegalovirus-infection of vascular endothelial cells. Archives of virology 1993;133:295-308.
43 Schwaighofer H, Oberhuber G, Hebart H, et. al. Endogenous interleukin 1 receptor antagonist during human bone marrow transplantation: increased levels during graft-versus-host disease, during infectious complications, and after immunoglobulin therapy. Transplantation 1997;63:52-56.
44 Kline JN, Geist LJ, Monick MM, et. al. Regulation of expression of the IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) gene by products of the human Cytomegalovirus immediate early genes. Journal of Immunology 1994;152:2351-2357.
45 Michelson S, Alcami J, Kim SJ, et. al. Human Cytomegalovirus-infection induces transcription and secretion of transforming growth-factor-beta-1. Journal of Virology 1994;68:5730-5737.
46 Alcami J, Paya CV, Virelizier JL, et. al. Antagonist modulation of human Cytomegalovirus replication by transforming growth-factor-
b and basic fibroblast growth factor. Journal of General Virology 1993;74:269-274.47 Biron CA, Orange JS, and Salzar-Mather, TP. Early murine Cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection induces liver natural killer (NK) cell inflammation and protection through macrophage inflammatory protein 1( (MIP 1()-dependent pathways. Journal of Experimental Medicine 1998;187:1-14.
48 Neote K, Digregorio D, Mak JY. Molecular-cloning, functional expression, and signaling characteristics of a C-C chemokine receptor. Cell 1993;72:415-425.
49 Pleskoff O, Treboute C, Brelot A, et. al. Identification of a chemokine receptor encoded by human Cytomegalovirus as a cofactor for HIV-1 entry. Science 1997;276:1874-1878.
50 Bodaghi B, Jones TR, Zipeto D, et. al. Chemokine sequestration by viral chemoreceptors as a novel viral escape strategy: Withdrawal of chemokines from the environment of Cytomegalovirus-infected cells. Journal of Experimental Medicine 1998;188:855-866.
51 Warren AP, Owens CN, Borysiewicz LK. Down-regulation of integrin alpha-1/beta-1 expression and association with cell rounding in human Cytomegalovirus-infected fibroblasts. Journal of General Virology 1994;75:3319-3325.
52 SoderbergNaucler C, Fish KN, Nelson JA. Reactivation of latent human Cytomegalovirus by allogeneic stimulation of blood cells from healthy donors. Cell 1997;91:119-126.
53 Zhu H, Shen YQ, Shenk T. Human Cytomegalovirus US IE1 and IE2 proteins block apoptosis. Journal of Virology. 1995;69:7960-7970.
54 Preiksaitis JK, and Janowskawieczorek A. Persistence of Cytomegalovirus in human long-term bone marrow culture. Journal of Medical Virology 1991;35:76-84.
55 Spiller OB, Morgan BP, Tufaro F, et. al. Altered expression of host-encoded complement regulators on human cytomegalovirus-infected cells. European Journal of Immunology. 1996;26:1532-1538.
56 Spear GT, Lurain NS, Parker CJ, et. al. Host cell-derived complement control proteins CD55 and CD59 are incorporated into the virions of 2 unrelated enveloped viruses- human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type-1 (HTLV-1) and human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Journal of Immunology 1995;155:4376-4381.
57 MacCormac LP, Grundy JE. Human Cytomegalovirus induces an Fc gamma receptor (Fc
g -R) in endothelial cells and fibroblasts that is distinct from the human cellular Fcg -R. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1996;174:1151-1161.58 Frank I, Friedman HM. A novel function of the Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 Fc receptor: participation in bipolar bridging of antiviral immunoglobulin G. Journal of Virology 1989; 63: 4479-4488.
59 Crnkovic-Mertens I, Messerle M, Milotic I, et. al. Virus attenuation after deletion of the Cytomegalovirus Fc receptor gene is not due to antibody control. Journal of Virology 1998;72:1377-1382.
60 Hengel H, Lucin P, Jonjic S, et. al. Restoration of Cytomegalovirus antigen presentation by gamma-interferon combats viral escape. Journal of Virology 1994; 68: 289-297.
61 Delval M, Schlicht HJ, Vokmer H, et. al. Protection against lethal Cytomegalovirus-infection by a recombinant vaccine containing a single nonameric T-cell epitope. Journal of Virology 1991; 65: 3641-3646.
62 Borysiewicz LK, Hickling JK, Graham S, et. al. Human cytomegalovirus-specific cytotoxic T-cells. Journal of Experimental Medicine 1988;168:919-931.
63 Britt WJ, Mach M. Human Cytomegalovirus glycoproteins. Intervirology 1996;39:401-412.
64 Walter EA, Greenberg PD, Gilbert MJ. Reconstitution of cellular-immunity against Cytomegalovirus in recipients of allogenic bone-marrow through transfer of T-cell clones form the donor. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;333:1038-1044.
65 Riddell SR, Reusser P, and Greenberg PD. Cytotoxic T cells specific for Cytomegalovirus: a potential therapy for immunocompermised patients. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1991;13:S966-S973.
66 Reddenhase MJ, Balthensen M, Rapp M, et. al. The conditions of primary infection define the load of latent viral genome in organs and the risk of recurrent Cytomegalovirus disease. Journal of Experimental Medicine 1994;179:185-193.
67 Steffens HP, Kurz S, Holtappels R, et. al. Preemptive CD8 T-Cell immunotherapy of acute Cytomegalovirus infection prevents lethal disease, limits the burden of latent viral genomes, and reduces the risk of virus recurrence. Journal of Virology. 1998;72:1797-1804.
68 Riddel SR, Watanabe KS, Goodrich JM, et. al. Restoration of viral immunity in immunodeficient humans by the adoptive transfer of T-cell clones. Science 1992;257:238-241.
69 Alder SP. Development and clinical status of Cytomegalovirus vaccines. Clinical Immunotheraputics. 1994;2:1-6.
70 Starr SE, Friedman HM, Plotkin SA. The status of the Cytomegalovirus vaccine. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1991;13:s946-s965, Suppl. 11.
71 Starr SE. Cytomegalovirus Vaccines- Current Status. Infectious Agents and Disease. 1992;1:146-148.
72 Wang JB, Adler SP, Hempfling S. Mucosal antibodies to human Cytomegalovirus glycoprotein B occur following both natural infection and immunization with human Cytomegalovirus vaccines. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1996;174:387-392.
Back to Immune Evasion Strategies HOME