235-285: Age of crisis: 5 reasons

1. no charismatic emperor

2. senate degraded, weak

3. interregional jealousies

4. static frontier defense backfires

5. military / economic dilemma

- static border defense requires more troops

-Aug.: 25 legions (max 28-30); MA 30; SS 33

BUT taxes, manpower maxed out

- metal for coin dwindling

- foreign trade imbalance

Economic problems:

1. inflation increases (267-274: 700 %)

2. monetary economy ruined by chaos

- ruins euergetism

- trade reduced to barter; taxes in kind

3. overseas trade declines

- interior trade no longer safe

- collapse of Chinese empire c. 200

4. agriculture declines

- constant invasions (except N. Africa, Britain)

- latifundia become fortified castles, repace cities

- coloni replace slave labor

5. manufacturing and commerce collapse

- state run armories needed to clothe and arm troops

Social problems:

1. increased social stratification

- honestiores / humiliores

- clarissimi, eminentissimi, perfectissimi

- comites (counts)

2. cities decline

- had depended on absentee landlords to fuel local merchants and artisans

- exceptions:

- Rome & Constantinople (subsidized capitals)

- Augusta Trevirorum & Mediolanum (imperial residences, military bases)

- Antioch (administrative center of Near East)

3. curial class declines

- curiales become local tax collectors

- mandatory liturgies

4. labor

- slavery in decline (main foreign supply gone)

- debt bondage on rise = hereditary serf status

- mandatory job apprenticeships