Regional History

The Economics of Empire in Colonial Narragansett

Divya Rao

Baker's representation of Narragansett in the 1700s can be viewed through several different temporal lenses. While the mural may seem to present itself as a window into the colonial activity of southern Rhode Island in the 1700s, it is important to keep in mind that the mural is in fact a 1930s understanding and depiction of that history (See Dueling History). Our reading of the mural in 2005 is one further step of temporal dislocation from an era almost three hundred years past, reminding us that no visual image can be taken as an unbiased or "true" representation of history.  

While Baker's mural should therefore not be read as a literal snapshot of past history, the activities he includes nonetheless correspond to historical events that defined the realities of colonial Rhode Island. During the period represented in the mural the hegemony of the Britain over the fledgling colonies was being questioned, particularly in regard to economics. The young yet robust colonial economy was beginning to establish itself as an entity distinct from the British empire. This was reflected on a local scale in the way that the citizens of southern Rhode Island sought to circumnavigate the tariffs and bans on importation imposed by Britain. Molasses, a key product in the manufacture of rum, was imported to the colonies from the sugar-rich islands of the West Indies. The price of molasses from the British West Indies was much higher, however, than that of the French West Indies, encouraging the profit-seeking colonists to patronize the French government instead of the British. In order to curtail this activity, Britain passed the Molasses Act of 1733 "against the wishes of colonial representatives" forbidding the colonists from purchasing molasses from anywhere but the British West Indies. Instead of abiding by this dictate, the planters of Narragansett engaged in smuggling, an illicit endeavor that was nonetheless aided by the largely unguarded coast (Figure 1), from which ships carrying contraband goods could dock and depart with relatively little notice. [1] Legal trade, in comparison, was carried out through Newport, RI, a bustling and highly-successful harbor of import and export for southern Rhode Island. [2] This activity is depicted in Baker's mural by the man in the right background with a lantern in his hand; he waits along the bare coast for a clandestine visit from a smuggling ship. We are left in no doubt of his activity by the barrels of molasses at his feet, confirmed by Baker himself in a description of his work. [3] (Figure 2)

The foundation for much of the agricultural wealth of colonial New England is represented by the other episodes in the mural. Between 1700 and 1750, New England experienced remarkable growth in agricultural productivity and commerce as local markets were established and then expanded on a regional scale. [4] The most economically successful and most politically powerful class in southern Rhode Island consisted of a large group of landowners called the Narragansett planters. In contrast to the planters of the southern colonies these landowners made their fortunes through stock and dairy farming. This was due in large part to environmental conditions; fertile soil, high-quality grass, open pastures, and relatively mild winters near the ocean provided the necessary ingredients for a livestock-based economy as opposed to one based on grain or cotton cultivation. Between 1730 and 1760 the average Narragansett planter held twenty horses, eighty cattle, and four hundred sheep. [5] One of the most commercially successful efforts of the Narragansett planters was the breeding of the Narragansett pacer, depicted in the mural by the figure of the rearing horse in the left foreground (Figure 3). The pacer was valued as a saddle horse for its smooth gait over the rough trails of the early countryside and was in high demand throughout the colonies and even as far as the West Indies. Although the origins of the pacer are unclear, the breed was nevertheless generally recognized to be a superior one by the beginning of the eighteenth century. [6]

The raising of cattle and dairy products was another lucrative activity of the Narragansett planters. Although some cattle may have been exported, the dairy products that came from them composed the bulk of cattle-based export, represented in the mural by the cow and round cheese boxes (Figure 4). Narragansett cheese was valued for its richness and flavor throughout the colonies and was also exported to the West Indies.The cheese was made in large quantities, as most planters had at least one cheese house on their property. [7] Where the terrain was too rocky for cattle pastures, depicted in the left background of the mural, sheep farming became a common practice, especially in the rough coastal areas (Figure 5). As woolen manufactories flourished, wool became yet another product for export. [8]

Although the planters made most of their profits through stock and dairy farming, they also engaged in traditional agriculture through the harvesting of white corn, rye, and other small grains. Because the conditions were not satisfactory for raising wheat, barley, or oats, white corn became the major bread grain of the colony. Although some corn and meal was likely exported, it was a minor practice; most of the harvested grain was likely kept within the colony itself for consumption by the planters and their livestock. [9] This practice is shown in the mural on the far right by the grist mill and sacks of corn being towed by the oxen (Figure 6).

Slavery, arguably the central topic of the mural, is represented by four black figures and is captured most powerfully at the center of the composition in the vignette of gesturing planter and struggling slave. Probate and census records indicate that the average planter held between five and twenty slaves on his plantation. In fact, Rhode Island held more slaves than any of the other northern colonies, despite its small size. During the first half of the eighteenth century, South Kingstown held more slaves than the rest of the entire colony, save Newport. [10] Slaves provided a large, cheap labor force that the planters used to clear lands, tend livestock, and harvest produce. [11] In some cases, slaves were also engaged in domestic work or trained in a skilled craft such as blacksmithing. [12]

Although many economic historians have discounted the impact of New England slavery on the development of the northern colonies, recent scholarship argues that slavery contributed to the transformation of the colonial economy from one of subsistence to one that could eventually compete with Britain. Northern slavery has been overlooked not only from the standpoint of the often-discounted economic value of household labor, but also from the perspective that the institution of slavery gave white males the free time to pursue professional, artisan, and entrepreneurial activities. Because the daily chores were done by slaves, planters could engage in other pursuits, business, commercial, and otherwise, that increased productivity and eventually facilitated the transition from a household-based to market-based economy. [13]

This widespread use of slave labor in southern Rhode Island, in everything from the breeding of livestock to the harvesting of grain, makes evident the fact that slavery was not just restricted to the colonies of the South. In a certain sense, the Activities of the Narragansett Planters represents the notion that slavery was not only one of many "activities" in which the planters were engaged, but that it was also the means to success in their ventures into agriculture and commerce. Furthermore, the realities of slavery in colonial Narragansett expose one of the greatest tragedies of the time period: while the colonists were struggling to overthrow the tyranny of Britain, enabled in part through the development of a unique commercial identity, they were, at the same time, perpetuating a much more heinous tyranny of their own.

 

Notes

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[1] William Davis Miller, "The Narragansett Planters," Proceedings, the American Antiquarian Society 43 (1993): 62-67.

[2] Miller, p. 50.

[3] Ernest Hamlin Baker, "Baker Capitulates," American Artist 1 (January 1940): 17.

[4] Joanne Pope Melish, Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation and "Race" in New England(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), p. 19.

[5] Christian M. McBurney, A History of Kingston, R.I 1700-1900 (Kingston: Pettaquamscutt Historical Society, 2004), p. 8.

[6] Miller, pp. 25-33.

[7] Miller, pp. 35-37.

[8] Miller, pp. 38-39.

[9] Miller, pp. 41.

[10] Miller, pp. 20-21.

[11] McBurney, p. 9.

[12] McBurney, p. 44.

[13] Melish, pp. 7-8, 18-24.