A

Agarwal, Sumit, Shumin Li, and Lawrence Mielnicki. “Mortgages, Minorities and Discrimination: A Bank-Specific Approach.” Housing Studies 18.3 (2003): 295-303.

This study reports on one financial institution’s use of the Bank-Specific Approach to examine its lending practices for the dual purposes of self-assessment, and for compliance with federal fair-lending laws. This approach allows individual banks to examine their underwriting policy guidelines as well as their practices, which goes above and beyond procedures required by law. The findings show that race was insignificant in influencing this bank’s decisions on first mortgage loans. Financial and credit-worthiness were found to be the primary determinants of loan disposition. The authors recommend the Bank-Specific Approach, instead of the matched-pair analysis employed by U.S. regulators, as a more statistically rigorous examination of fair-lending practices. Examining policy guidelines for “hidden” discriminatory practices is “the first step in addressing the problem of mortgage lending, minority applicants and discrimination.” Ashley, Terry. “Union Membership Effects on Black-White Differences in Returns to Education.” The Review of Black Political Economy (1999): 13-32. The author examines racial disparities in returns to education of black and white workers, and assesses the validity of the “flattening” hypothesis with regard to black and white union and non-union workers. This hypothesis associates diminished wage gains with increased years of schooling for union workers versus nonunion workers. The findings confirm the flattening effect among white workers. On the other hand, wage gains from returns to education among black union and nonunion members are comparable. The relative wage gain may contribute to interest in union membership among black workers with more education. There is also a discussion of possible explanations for the flattening effect among white workers.

 

B

Bates, Timothy. “Job Creation Through Improved Market Access to Markets for Minority Owned Businesses”. Job Creation: Prospects and Strategies. Ed. Wilhelmina A. Leigh & Margaret C. Simms. Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. Washington , D.C. 1998.

This article is targeted at policymakers and focuses on the limited access of minority business enterprise (MBE) to government funds and contracts, despite MBE’s significant impact on minority employment. The essay argues that minority business should be encouraged by the government as it has a larger impact on minority job creation than white-owned firms in minority communities also known as Enterprise communities or Empowerment Zones. Though the article contains many facts and figures, the majority of the sources are previous articles by the author. Despite this, the essay draws attention to the importance of MBE to their communities and emphasizes the significance of non-retail business to MBE.

Bilginsoy, Cihan. “The Hazards of Training: Attrition and Retention in Construction Industry Apprenticeship Programs.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 57.1 (2003): 54-67.  

This study examines how certain characteristics of apprentices and apprenticeship programs relate to the likelihood that a participant will complete the program. The author analyzes attrition and retention rates in apprenticeships sponsored by employers alone (non-joint programs), and by both employers and trade unions (joint programs); among women relative to men; and among racial/ethnic minorities relative to whites. There is also discussion of the impact of economic conditions on the duration of apprenticeships. The findings show that completion rates are higher in joint programs, and among men and whites, while cancellation rates are higher in non-joint programs, and among women and minorities. Economic recessions lengthen the duration of apprenticeships, while economic expansions shorten the duration. The observed racial disparities in apprenticeship completion rates are attributed to the traditional exclusion of minorities from construction trades, and the resulting disadvantage in access to informal networks that provide gainful employment in the industry.

Blanchflower, David G., Phillip B. Levine, and David J. Zimmerman. “Discrimination in the Small-Business Credit Market.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 85.4 (2003): 930-943.

This paper investigates racial disparities in credit availability. The authors hypothesize that racial discrimination in the small-business credit market is the cause of this disparity. Their findings show that black owners of small businesses are twice as likely than non-black business-owners to be denied credit. Differences in creditworthiness and other characteristics of the businesses and business-owners that can influence loan decisions were controlled in the analysis, and specification checks ensure the absence of variable bias. Additionally, the authors conducted a qualitative analysis that reported a disproportionate share of black business-owners whose fear of loan denial due to discrimination prevented them from applying for loans.

Bloch, Farrell. “Minority Employment in the Construction Trades.” Journal of Labor Research 24.2 (2003): 271-289.  

This study examines the impact of pay on minority employment in the construction trades, and how union membership and the Davis-Bacon Act influence this relationship. Historically, minorities have not been active in unions, often citing discriminatory treatment. Prevailing wages are driven upwards when a larger share of building trades workers are union members. The Davis-Bacon Act requires federally funded construction projects to pay local “prevailing wages” to workers. The author hypothesizes that wage increases lead to a decrease in the employment share of minorities and laborers (low-skill workers). The effects of a one-dollar wage increase show a disproportionate loss of jobs for minorities and laborers, which reallocates a larger share of total employment to white workers. The author recommends repeal of the Davis-Bacon Act in order to increase minority employment in the construction trades.

Bradbury, Katharine L. “Education and Wages in the 1980s and 1990s: Are all Groups Moving Up Together?” New England Economic Review (2002): 19-46.

This study observes changes in educational wage premiums across racial demographic groups from 1980 to 2000. The findings first show that men, as a group, experienced real wage losses and diminished educational wage premiums during the observation period, whereas women experienced real wage gains and enhanced educational wage premiums. Minority men and minority women, however, were at a real wage disadvantage compared to their white counterparts. Finally, minority-White wage disparity ratios in men didn’t change, due to parallel real wage losses, whereas the disparity ratio grew among women, since white women experienced greater real wage gains than minority women. There is also discussion of how changes in educational wage premiums differ for blacks and Hispanics. The authors conclude with possible explanations for the differential payoffs to education across racial demographic groups.

C

Carey, Allison C., Virginia DelSordo, and Amy Goldman. “Assistive Technology for All: Access to Alternative Financing for Minority Populations.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 14.4 (2004): 194-203.

This study investigates the availability and use of alternative financing programs (AFPs) to obtain assistive technology (AT) among minority and white populations. The authors begin by discussing possible difficulties that minorities may face in accessing AT, including disability identification, knowledge of AT and AT financing options, optimism about AT, services, and funding, and effects of racial/ethnic/cultural differences. The findings confirm the authors’ expectations of low application rates to AFPs among minorities, fewer professional referrals to AFPs among minorities compared to whites, and a disproportionate denial of loans to minority applicants. The authors go on to describe one successful minority outreach program, and they recommend this model in order to increase the availability and use of AFPs in minority populations.

 

Curry, George E. "Affirmative Action War still Rages." New York Amsterdam News 4 Mar. 2004 : 13+.

The article reports that a group of conservative students at Roger Williams University offered a “whites-only” scholarship, to prove the unfairness of affirmative action. One of the spokespeople for the group was Jason Mattera, a Puerto Rican student, who benefited from a minority scholarship the university, offers. The article goes on to discuss similar incidences at universities nationwide and the continuing attack on affirmative action. The author points out that the Supreme Court only allows institutions to engage in affirmative action policies but does not require them, therefore many attacks on affirmative action are misguided.

D

Danziger, Sandra et al. “Work Income and Material Hardship After Welfare Reform” The Journal of Consumer Affairs 34.1 (2000): 6-29.

This article investigates whether TANF recipients are better off financial and materially and whether the push to work has benefited or hurt them. The author concludes that although those working as well as receiving TANF benefits do have higher income than those not working, it is only marginal. In many cases people still have to resort to desperate measures to acquire money and/or food and many still suffer from food insufficiency, health issues, etc. despite employment. The article offers graphs and statistical data gleaned from surveys of women receiving TANF benefits.

 

Dawkins, Casey J. “Recent Evidence on the Continuing Causes of Black-White Residential Segregation.” Journal of Urban Affairs 26.3 (2004): 379-400.

This report examines possible root causes of Black-White residential segregation based on newly available data sets. Five competing hypotheses are summarized and critiqued in detail: racial income differences, racial differences in tastes for housing services, racial differences in housing market information, racial prejudice, and housing market discrimination. The findings show that the latter three explanations, based on race per se, continue to drive black-white segregation patterns. Socioeconomic and demographic qualities play less of a role in racial differences in location choices than previously thought. Evidence collected over the past 30 or more years suggests that federal fair housing legislation alone is inadequate to alleviate patterns of Black-White residential segregation. The authors envision local and state policy makers as the primary advocates of racial integration.

E

Eberts, Randall W. and Edward B. Montgomery. “The Impact of Economic Development Policy on Black Owned Enterprises. Job Creation: Prospects and Strategies. Ed. Wilhelmina A. Leigh & Margaret C. Simms. Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. Washington , D.C. 1998.

 This essay critically examines the effects of economic policy on Black-owned business, in order to analyze the way Black business can profit from economic policy. The essay focuses on economic development initiatives offered by state and local governments and whether they are being fully exploited and effective to Black business. Because most economic development initiatives do not specifically target Black (or minority) businesses but instead those, which meet their needs, the article looks at how Black business can fall in line with initiatives and vice versa. The essay also looks at specific metropolitan areas and the trends of Black business in urban vs. suburban locales. The authors stress the suggestiveness of their findings and the need for further work and refinement but contends that Black-owned firms do not meet the criteria to fully benefit from the government programs. And government programs are not offering the assistance to properly further the growth of Black-owned small business.

F

Flippen, Chenoa. “Unequal Returns to Housing Investments? A Study of Real Housing Appreciation among Black, White, and Hispanic Households.” Social Forces 82.4 (2004): 1523-1551.

This report compares returns to housing investments in predominantly minority and integrated neighborhoods, and in predominantly White communities. The authors hypothesize that differential housing appreciation in the two areas is a result of neighborhood racial composition per se, as opposed to non-racial socioeconomic and housing structure factors. Although non-racial factors explain much of the disparity in housing appreciation, evidence in favor of the hypothesis is found, particularly in highly segregated areas. The authors emphasize the importance of neighborhood composition on property value growth and poverty composition. Collected data also shows similarities and differences between effects of high Hispanic and Black neighborhood concentrations on housing appreciation. This study highlights the need for improved policies to improve residential desegregation.

 

Freund, David. "Housing Segregation/School Segregation." Poverty & Race 13 (2004): 6-8.

The article is the final installment in a series of articles about the history of
government sponsored segregation through housing, schooling, and transportation policies. It assesses the actions of the Housing and Home Finance Agency (HHFA) under Robert Weaver, who headed the HHFA after President Kennedy enacted the Executive Order 11068 which prohibited racial discrimination in federally supported housing developments. The author states that even with the executive order, the entrenched housing market continued to support segregation. The author explains the idea of a two-tiered housing market, in which the consumer is offered varying goods due to race.

Frey, William H. "The Diversity Myth." American Demographics. June 1998: 38.

The article examines the continuing influx of immigrants vs. the stagnant
segregation of United States cities. The author points out that despite growing
immigration there are few multiethnic communities in the United States . The immigrant “gateways”, mainly New York City , Los Angeles and San Francisco attract and retain populations. Many White families live in suburbs surrounding these metros. New York City is the only city that has over representation of as many as three minority groups. The article has statistics about the movement of immigrant and minority groups, recentresettlement patterns and new majority minority areas.

G

Gainsborough, Juliet F. "To Devolve or not to Devolve? Welfare Reform in the States." The Policy Studies Journal 31 (2003): 603-623.

The author examines the process of devolution since the enactment of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (PRWORA). Both supporters and detractors of the act anticipated that the move to state-controlled welfare would result in further devolution to the local level. Many also anticipated a "race-to-the-bottom" as states would try to offer little services to avoid attracting low-income residents. Through data and case study, the author contends that devolution to local level has only occurred in states, which already had local involvement pre-PRWORA. Rhode Island has had little to no devolution past the state level.

I
Itzigsohn, José, et al. "Mapping Dominican Transnationalism: Narrow and Broad Transnational Practices." Ethnic and Racial Studies 22 (1999): 316-339.

This is an academic article analyzing what the authors identify as a transnational social field amongst the Dominican community. The transnational social field is defined as the social interactions and exchanges that are relevant references and actions for a group of people which transcend political and geographical boundaries. The article explains how the influx of Dominican immigrants into the United States has created transnational practices, which can be both narrow (clearly defined and frequent) and broad (loosely defined and infrequent) in affect creating an “extraterritorial nation”. The article is based on research and data as well as, interviews with Dominicans in the Washington Heights area of Manhattan , New York , Providence , Rhode Island , and Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic . There is also statistical data on the Dominican immigrant populations of Providence .

K

Kwon, Hee-Kyung , Virginia S. Zuiker, and Jean W. Bauer. “Factors Associated with the Poverty Status of Asian Immigrant Householders by Citizenship Status.” Journal of Family and Economic Issues 25.1 (2004): 101-120.

This study employs principles of human capital theory and acculturation theory to better understand the impact of U.S citizenship status on poverty amongst Asian immigrants, a population that has been overlooked in related research on ethnic minorities. The authors determine demographic, human capital, and acculturation factors associated with the poverty status of Asian immigrant householders. Since non-citizen Asian immigrant households made up a disproportionate share of Asian immigrant households below the poverty line, these factors also relate to citizenship status. Although higher levels of human capital and acculturation reduce the likelihood of falling under the poverty line for both citizens and non-citizens, the effect is somewhat limited for non-citizens. The authors report new findings on associations between gender and poverty status, and rural residency and poverty status within the Asian immigrant population. This study is useful for policy makers seeking to raise levels of human capital and acculturation within the Asian immigrant population as a means to improving its economic well-being.

N

Neal, Derek. “The Measured Black-White Wage Gap among Women Is Too Small.” Journal of Political Economy 112.1 (2004): 1-28.

This study addresses sources of inaccuracy in the reported median black-white wage gap among young adult women in 1990. Although the black-white wage gap among women is commonly estimated to be smaller than the wage gap among men, the author’s results show that the disparity is more than two-thirds as large among women. Previous studies failed to consider the effects of selection bias on racial wage inequality. They didn’t take into account how family structures differ by race, and the impact of family structure on women’s labor participation and income sources. There is discussion of how racial differences in selection patterns mask the effects of discrimination, or produce results that falsely show that black women have greater labor market opportunities than white women. The author recommends further study of racial disparities in labor market opportunities after data from the 2000 census is released.

O

Önder, Zeynep. “Homeownership and FHA Mortgage Activity in Neighborhoods and Metropolitan Areas.” Journal of Housing Economics 11 (2002): 152-181.

This study reviews the impact of FHA-insured mortgage activity on homeownership rates of households in its target demographic: low- and moderate-income neighborhoods, especially those in minority-populated and distressed areas. The author also investigates the effect of FHA activity on disparities in homeownership rates of whites and blacks. The study finds FHA activity beneficial at the aggregate level, but of limited effect for its target demographic. The FHA is most successful at increasing homeownership in moderate- to high-income neighborhoods, and for white households in all types of neighborhoods. A similar relationship is only found for black households in predominantly minority neighborhoods. The author recommends measures that redirect the FHA’s efforts to provide the greatest assistance to its target demographic.

 

 

R

Ross, Stephen L., and Geoffrey M. B. Tootell. "Redlining, the Community Reinvestment Act, and private mortgage Insurance." Journal of Urban Economics 5 (2004): 278-297.

This article examines the process of redlining as it relates to neighborhood discrimination. The authors contend that earlier studies of redlining focus on the refusal of loans to individuals and do not attend to the issue of redlining as it relates to racial composition of neighborhoods. In order to meet the requirements of the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA), lenders give out loans to minorities or to people investing in low-income neighborhoods but only if they obtain private mortgage insurance (PMI). The article concludes that there is no direct evidence of racial or income based redlining but indirect evidence shows that mortgage applications are more likely to be denied for low income neighborhoods if the borrower does not have PMI.

S

Spilimbergo, Antonio, and Luis Ubeda. "Family Attachment and the Decision to Move by Race." Journal of Urban Economics 55 (2004): 478-497.

The article discusses the mobility of the Black community and the discrepancy between movement and economic factors. Although Blacks display the economic and demographic characteristics of a high mobility population, they do not tend to move around as much as their White counterparts. The authors attribute this to family attachment and social connections. Utilizing economic and demographic data, the authors control for multiple variables and discover that the single most important factor for Blacks when moving was family. Unemployed Blacks are still less likely to move than their White counterparts when it comes to seeking work. The article addresses many other factors that play into mobility and other reasons for the lack of mobility in the Black community.

T

Traub, Susan. “Childcare & PRWORA: Paying the Baby-sitter or Investing in Early Education?” Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law & Policy. Volume 9, Number 1. Winter 2002: 249-278.

This article is directed towards policy-makers and policy advocates regarding the pitfalls or the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, and specifically how it affects mothers and children. Due to the rising childcare costs, the author claims that it is more feasible for a mother to utilize TANF benefits without working, that to try to stretch a small salary. The author looks at three test cases, one of which is Rhode Island . In the case of Rhode Island the author stats that Rhode Island’s attempts to focus on job retention and suitability by offering outreach and training programs is hindered by a lack of funds that can truly support working mothers who participate in these initiatives. The article gives insight into varying welfare reform theory and uses the case-studies as detailed analysis of how these theories play out on the ground.

Z

Zhou, Bin and Wendy Shaw. “Financial Transformation and Portfolio Reallocation: Impacts on House Mortgage Finance in the USA .” Housing Studies 19.2 (2004): 207-228.

 

The authors explain how financial transformations of the U.S. credit market affect portfolio factors that interact to create disparities in home mortgage finance ability between black/lower-income families and white/higher-income families. Much of the discussion is devoted to the mechanisms of financial transformation in order to show that the home mortgage market behaves similarly to the credit market as a whole. In response to financial stresses in the 1970s and 1980s, lenders increased denial rates, interest rates, and down payments, which affected all socioeconomic groups. Differential income growth, however, led to an advantage in home finance ability for white/higher-income families. The authors recommend further study examining the interactions between lending institutions and the larger financial system, in order to establish public programs that will equalize home finance ability across socioeconomic groups.