Safety Annotations (by author)
Bradley, Carla, and Cynthia G. Hawkins-León. “The Transracial Adoption Debate: Counseling and Legal Implications. Journal of Counseling and Development 80 (2002): 433-440
In this article, the authors engage the reader in a discussion pertaining to the transracial adoption debate. Rather than present a biased opinion, the authors discuss the findings of previous studies as well as the laws that are associated with the topic. The concept of transracial adoption is an important one to consider especially with regards to African American children. As the article notes, African American children are disproportionately represented in foster care and adoption, often accounting for approximately fifty percent of those populations. Because white families account for the largest proportion of families that adopt and with the declining number of white children available for adoption, transracial adoptions are quite common. The tone of the article suggests that transracial adoption is practically inevitable. On that note, the concluding argument recommends that there should be more of an emphasis on educating adopters about the obvious and subtle implications of transracial adoption.
Butcher, Kristen F., and Anne Morrison Piehl. “The Role of Deportation in the Incarceration of Immigrants.” National Bureau of Economic Research, working paper 6974. Cambridge, MA: 1999
This is an academic paper geared largely towards policymakers, which discusses the constantly changing situation of foreign-born inmates in both state and federal prisons. Provides a comprehensive background of state, federal and INS policy in the last twenty years and a lengthy cost analysis, but pre-dates the post-9/11 policy changes regarding foreign-born people in the penal system.
Colin, Michelle, and Aaron Bernstein. “Working…and Poor.” Business Week, 31 May 2004: 58-65
In this article, the authors Colin and Bernstein discuss the bleak positions that many working class Americans find themselves in. Primarily, the article includes many revealing statistics that demonstrate the gravity of the working class situation in the U.S. For example, it is stated that an estimated 28 million people in the U.S. between the ages of 16-64 make less than $ 9.04 an hour. In terms of racial characteristics, Blacks and Hispanics account for 36 percent of the working poor population. Essentially, the article emphasizes the many boundaries and limitations within the economic and political sphere of the U.S. that prevent multitudes of individuals from achieving ‘upward mobility’. The article’s use of anecdotes and statistics to paint a descriptive picture of the working poor in the U.S. is very effective in getting across the dilemma that many of the nation’s population are confronted with.
Coker, Donna. “Foreword: Addressing the Real World of Racial Injustices In the Criminal Justice System.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 93.4 (2003):827-879
Donna Coker, a professor at the University of Miami School of Law, raises a lot of key issues pertaining to racial injustices committed under the scope of the criminal justice system. Some examples that author makes note of include, the disproportionate number of African Americans and Hispanics, serving drug sentences, charged with the federal death penalty, racial profiled while driving, as well as being the primary subjects of search warrants. In this lengthy and very detailed oriented article, the author makes good use of federal statistics as well as court cases to elaborate the injustices of the court system. A solution to the ethnic and minority racial disparities that Coker offers is that the democratic process needs to be effectively utilized in the attempt to change law enforcement priorities. Moreover, rather than just presenting the ever increasing evidence on racial injustices, efforts need to be made to convince the majority, primarily white individuals, that injustices are real and prevalent within society.
Denby, Ramona W. Ph.D, and Carla M. Curtis, Ph.D. “Why Special Populations Are Not The Target of Family Preservation Services: A Case for Program Reform.” Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 30.2 (2003): 149-172
In this article, the authors highlight a previous study done in an attempt to understand the manner in which special populations of children are targeted for family preservation services. These services provide intervention for families at risk of loosing their children. While sixteen different types of special populations were used in the study, this article concentrates solely on the findings that are related to children of color. The primary reason for the focus on children of color in the study is because this group is believed to demonstrate the highest risk of remaining in substitute care for extended periods of time. Findings of the study illustrate a strong bias against targeting special populations. Evaluating the findings, the authors believe that family preservation programs will be more successful if more effort is made to target special populations. Overall, the article is well-organized, elaborate, and informative.
Domke, David; Garland, Philip; Billeaudeaux, Andre; Hutcheson, John. “Insights into U.S. Racial Hierarchy: Racial Profiling, News Sources, and September 11.” Journal of Communication 53(2003): 606-623
This article is a synopsis of a recent study done to demonstrate and determine how race hierarchy works in the most prominent new sources. Primarily, the study sought to observe how issues of racial profiling was talked about prior to and post September 11, 2001, especially by African Americans and Arab Americans. The researchers were also interested in discovering the extent to which the previously mentioned groups were represented in media discussions. While sources pertaining to racial profiling doubled after September 11 th, the voices of minorities still were often outnumbered by White Americans. One interesting finding was that very few non government opinion leaders’ voices were present among the minority individuals, especially for African Americans. Moreover, of the individuals representing minority interest groups, Arab Americans tended to have more voice than African Americans. In general, this article illustrates the severity of racial hierarchies in the media.
Ferrari, Anne M. “The impact of culture upon child rearing practices and definitions of maltreatment.” Child Abuse and Neglect 26.8 (2002): 793-813
In this extensive study summary, the issue of how the cultural beliefs of individuals influence his or her parental attitudes in regards to raising a child is explored. The conducted study was primarily concerned with correlating the presence of child maltreatment with a parent’s childhood history of abuse. Rather than concentrate primarily on the category of ethnicity, the research sought to study the influences of the “ingredients” of ethnicity. These “ingredients” included machismo, familism, and the valuing of children. The findings demonstrate that a history of childhood abuse was a factor of a mother using both physical and verbal punishment whereas fathers were influenced by cultural beliefs. Moreover, ethnicity was also a very significant factor as a demographic variable.
Florsheim, Paul; Sumida, Emi; McCann, Claire; Fukui, Ritsuko; Seefeldt, Trina; Winstanley, Matthew; Moore, David. “The Transition to Parenthood among Young African American and Latino Couples: Relational Predictors of Risk for Parental Dysfunction.” Journal of Family Psychology 17.1 (2003): 65-79
This article is an analysis of a longitude study done to examine how relationship factors associated among African American and Latino couples were related to the adjustment of parenthood. The relationships that couples had with each other were studied in two areas: prior to the birth of their child and during the transition to parenthood. The relations that the new parents had with their own parents were also studied and believed to be indicators of results. The study found that there is an association between relationship status and parenting stress. Findings also revealed several cross-ethnic differences between African and Latino couples. Overall, the study relies heavily on scientific data therefore making it a little difficult to digest all the implications of the study.
Fox, Kathleen A. “Collecting Data on the Abuse and Neglect of American Indian Children.” Child Welfare 82.6 (2003): 707-726
Kathleen Fox, a Principle Investigator for the National Indian Child Welfare Association, discusses a survey that was recently done in 2000. The primary purpose of the study was to document how data collection on abuse and neglect on American Indians is obtained. The study was also chiefly concerned with the question of primarily who is collecting the data. Fox examines the extent to which tribal employers work in collaboration with state workers and the extent to which they work separately. Ultimately, this article examines the relationships that exist between tribal workers, individual states, and federal reporting. Because the findings from the study indicate that only 42% of the tribal child abuse and neglect investigations have incorporated any state participation, much of the tribal data does not reach the federal reporting system and remains solely at the tribal level. Fox concludes by emphasizing the needs of the different tribal groups especially in terms of the resources used to collect child abuse and neglect data. Overall, the report raises many significant points that need to be addressed in order for a more accurate and better equipped data collection on child abuse and neglect in native communities.
Glelsvik, Annie, Wendy Verhoek-Oftedahl, and Deborah N. Pearlman. “Domestic Violence Incidents With Children Witnesses: Findings From Rhode Island Surveillance Data.” Women’s Health Issues 13 (2003): 68-73
This is an academic study geared towards policymakers which analyzes factors associated with children witnessing police-reported domestic violence using data collected from the Rhode Island Department of Health. The study includes a good though brief discussion of racial and ethnic disparities in the data collected, and provides valuable information for prevention and information planning on the part of policymakers.
Hobfoll, Stevan E.; Bansal, Anita; Schurg, Rebecca; Young, Sarah; Pierce, Charles A.; Hobfoll, Ivonne; Johnson, Robert. “The Impact of Perceived Child Physical and Sexual Abuse History on Native American Women’s Psychological Well-Being and AIDS Risk.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70.1 (2002): 252-257
In this article, the authors present a study concerned with identifying key factors that contribute or subtract from the emotional stability of Native American women. The study discussed was primarily interested in revealing how experiences of physical and sexual abuse from a woman’s childhood can influence her well-being and her likelihood to contact sexually transmitted diseases. The findings of the study support the authors’ initial claims. Although sexual risk was highly correlated with both physical and sexual abuse, the findings illustrate that child physical-emotional abuse was significantly related more to greater emotional distress then sexual abuse was. While the study has great implications for future research, it is important to acknowledge that the findings are based on self reporting and is limited to a small population of Native Americans in the U.S.
Johnson, Scott L. “The Self-Fulfilling Prophesy of Police Profiles.” The System in Black and White. Eds. Michael W. Markowitz and Delores D. Jones-Brown. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2000. 93-108.
This article suggests that one potential source of racial disparity in the criminal justice system is the drug courier profile, one of the enforcement strategies in the War on Drugs. The article provides a history of the development of the profile as well as a discussion of previous research done, as well as discussing the accuracy and impact of drug courier profiles on the non-white population, and concludes with the suggestion that this law enforcement tool should be abandoned due to its subjectivity. This article is useful for its historical information and analysis, and could be useful when researching any kind of profiling as a law enforcement tool.
Johnson, Wesley W., and Mark Jones. “Probation, Rae, and the War on Drugs: An Empirical Analysis of Drug and Non-Drug Felony Probation Outcomes.” Journal of Drug Issues 28.4 (1998): 985-1003
In this article, the authors provide an analysis of race disparity under the premise of the nation’s war on drugs. Insights from previous literature along with a synopsis of 1993 race specific probation data obtained from North Carolina’s Department of Corrections are the foundation for all claims made. Primarily, the article focuses on identifying the extent to which the belief that drug felony probationers are a threat to communities is factual. The analysis uses logistic regression and the category African-American men who are on probation for felony drug offenses as an independent variable. The results indicate that these individuals are not the threat they are assumed to be. Overall, the authors offer a fascinating perspective on probation, race, and the war on drugs.
Juszkiewics, Jolanta, and Marc Schindler. “Youth Crime/Adult Time: Is Justice Served?” Corrections Today 63.1 (2001): 102-107.
This article focuses on the major findings of a report entitled “Youth Crime/Adult Time: Is Justice Served?” issued by the Building Blocks for Youth initiative. The report was created as means of displaying how minority adolescents are overrepresented in the population held in detention facilities and in their transfers from juvenile to adult courts. The major findings of the report included statistics that demonstrated that African-American youth were significantly less likely than Caucasians to be represented by private counsel which nonetheless impacted sentencing. It was also found that Caucasians were twice as likely as whites to have their charges reduced to misdemeanors. Primarily, this article presents the major findings of the report in simplified terms by use of bullet points which allows for the reader to get a good understanding of the findings. The article concludes by stating that there is a strong need for more comprehensive research on the reasons for why the disparities exist.
Koss, Mary P.; Yuan, Nicole P.; Dightman, Douglas; Prince, Ronald J.; Polacca, Mona; Sanderson, Byron; Goldman, David. “Adverse Childhood Exposures and Alcohol Dependence among Seven Native American Tribes.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25.3 (2003): 238-244
This article discusses the implications of a study done between 1998 and 2001 with the purpose of examining the relationship between childhood maltreatment and alcohol treatment among several diverse Native American communities. On account of alcohol abuse and alcoholism as the leading cause of death among Native Americans, the study seeks to uncover some of the major causes of alcohol consumption among Native American communities. The findings suggest that rates of alcohol consumption were increased considerably by adverse childhood ex periences. For men, these experiences included physical and sexual abuse and for women they included sexual abuse and boarding school attendance. In general, the authors present a compelling argument for the dire need of prevention and intervention programs in these communities.
Krisberg, Kim. “Work place health disparities increasing among Hispanics.” Nation's Health 34.2 (2004):11-12
In this brief article, Krisberg outlines the serious reality of work place illness, injury, and fatality among the Hispanic population of workers in the U.S. The author also offers some of the major indicators that result in increased workplace safety vulnerability for specific communities. While the findings are geared more towards California workers, the problems are prevalent across the nation. The article is written in a way suggests that if solutions are not sought, then workplace danger will continue to elevate for communities at risk. These problems range from exploitation of immigrant workers to inadequate safety training. This article should be of particular interest to individuals who have very little knowledge of the extent to which health disparities exist in the workplace. Krisberg does a good job of providing relevant statistics and examples that help illustrate the severe nature of the issue of work place health disparities.
Lee, Roberta K.; Thompson, Vetta L. Sanders, and Mindy B. Mechanic. “Intimate Partner Violence and Women of Color: A Call for Innovations.” American Journal of Public Health 92.4 (2002): 530-534
The authors of this article investigate intimate partner violence among women of color. Incorporated into the article are many statistics and data that show comparisons primarily between White women and various ethnic communities in relation to recorded acts of domestic violence. One significant finding mentioned in the commentary is that the rate for intimate partner violence (IPV) homicide rates among African American women is more than double that observed for White women. However in terms of nonfatal IPV, the rates between African-American and White women appear to be similar. Findings also suggest that there are higher rates of IPV in the American Indian community than in other communities. It was also gathered that African American and American Indians have been reported to suffer more severe injuries and have weapons used against them than other groups of women. It is stated that more studies need to be done on women of color in intervention studies and rural communities.
Mauer, Marc. “The Crisis of the Young African American Male and the Criminal Justice System.” Impacts of Incarceration on the African American Family. Eds. Othello Harris and R. Robin Miller. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2003. 199-217.
This is a well researched and astute article concerning the over-representation of African American men in the US penal system. It synthesizes national crime and imprisonment statistics with broader discussions of race and class, and points out the critical importance of drug policies in perpetuating racial disparities in the criminal justice system. The article also proposes several approaches to reducing said racial disparities. Overall, this article is very helpful in understanding the current racial crises in the criminal justice system.
Morawetz, Nancy. “Understanding the Impact of the 1996 Deportation Laws and the Limited Scope of Proposed Reforms.” Harvard Law Review. 113.8 (2000): 1936-1962
In this article Morawetz, a professor of Clinical Law at New York University School of Law, articulates the impact that the 1996 deportation laws have on immigrant communities. Morawetz begins her discussion by offering a break down of the implications of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) and the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA). The author’s main argument is that the structure and language of the deportation laws of 1996 make it extremely easy for permanent residents and other non-citizen immigrants to face deportation. She also stresses that these deportations can result from any crime convictions. Morawetz concludes by emphasizing how the rights of legal permanent residents are manipulated and that these particular issues with the laws must be recognized before any reform to take place. The author presents very knowledgeable and relevant discussion in this article.
Ngwe, Job; Liu, Li; Flay, Brian; Segawa, Eisuke; & Aya, Aban. “Violence Prevention Among African American Adolescent Males.” American Journal of Health Behaviors. 28 (2004): S24-S37.
This study analyzes the success of the Aban Aya Youth Project which is a three year intervention program to address violence among adolescents. The program consists of a school-community program, social development curriculum, and health enhancement curriculum. This article attempts to analyze the psychological and social affects of the program on the violence behaviors. Researchers found that AAYP interventions significantly reduced the rate of growth in violent behaviors. The researchers addressed the participants’ perception of their intentions related to violent behavior, attitude toward engaging in violence, estimate of peers’ behaviors, friends’ behavior, and friends’ encouragement of violent behavior to see the psychological and social affects of the program. The researchers found that the AAYP affected participants’ intentions to avoid violence, improved their attitudes regarding violent behavior, and strengthened their ability to resist peer pressure that encouraged violent behavior. The article suggests that mediating factors have significant effects on attitudes toward violence and these mediating factors must be better understood in order to improve the success of future intervention programs.
Nichols, Martha. “Outside Looking In.” Women’s Review of Books 14 (1997): 8-11
This is an interesting non-academic article geared towards a literary audience which discusses the Rhode Island Department of Corrections Women’s Facilities. Includes a very good description and discussion of the physical and psychological environment within the prison, as well as a critical discussion of existing transitional and reform programs.
Platt, Tony. “The State of Welfare” Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine 55.5 (2003): 13-27
Tony Platt, a professor and editor for the journal Social Justice discusses the state of current welfare policies in the United States. He offers a chronological history of the role of welfare in society. Platt is very effective of displaying the correlations between race, poverty, welfare, and incarceration. He also gives critical example that demonstrate the extent to which welfare policies have regressed not progressed over time. The article concludes by outlining some of the necessary changes that need to be incorporated into welfare policies. Overall, Platt offers an argument that is very organized, persuasive, concise, and easily understood.
Roman, Caterina Gouvis. “A Roof is Not Enough: Successful Prisoner Reintegration Requires Experimentation and Collaboration.” Criminology and Public Policy, 3.2 (2004): 161-168
Roman, a PhD candidate and M.S. of American University, discusses a 2003 study done by Metraux and Culhane in regards to the existing imbedded relationship between homelessness and prison reentry. In this article, Roman argues that although the correlation between homelessness and prison reentry is to a certain extent recognized, the rate at which changes are made to correct the system is very slow. In general, Roman discusses the restrictions that criminal justice policies have on inmates as well as stresses the fact that there remain very few programs that assist the offenders whom are reentering society. While the author presents a very cohesive argument, I would suggest that the reader perhaps first read about the study conducted by Metraux and Culhane to have a more complete understanding of the author’s stance.
Shaw, John; Lewis, John; Loeb, Andrea; Rosado, James; Rodriquez, Rosemarie. “A comparison of Hispanic and African-American sexually girls and their families.” Child Abuse and Neglect 25 (2001): 1363-1379
This article discusses extensively a study conducted to find the major differential effects of sexual abuse on Hispanic (HN) and African-American (AA) girls. While there appeared to be some commonalities in the findings for both racial groups, various differences were observed. The findings suggest that AA girls were displayed higher rates of vaginal penetration. The HN girls waited longer to disclose their encounters than the AA girls and they also displayed a greater number of sexual abusive encounters. It was also more likely for their perpetrators to be family members. As a result of the different major indicators, they experienced more emotional and behavioral problems. The article makes great references to previous studies and incorporates a lot of statistical analysis.
Shenassa, Edmond D., ScD; Stubbendick, Amy, MS; and Mary Jean Brown, ScD, RN. “Social Disparities in Housing and Related Pediatric Injury: A Multilevel Study.” American Journal of Public Health 94.4 (2004): 633-639
This article imparts information collected from a recent ecologic study conducted by the authors. The purpose of the study was to determine whether housing characteristics mediate the correlations between concentration of poverty and pediatric injury and between concentration of racial minorities and pediatric injury. By utilizing data from all Illinois hospital discharges for the period of 1990 through 2000 and information collected from the 1990 US Census, it was found that residents that did not own their housing as well as those who lived in houses built before 1950 had higher rates of pediatric injury, the most prevalent injuries being falls and burns. The findings also demonstrate that children residing in areas with high concentrations of poverty were significantly more likely to sustain falls and burns. The article argues that the effect of socioeconomic status is an extremely significant factor that absorbs categories of race and ethnicity. Overall, the authors present credible research that contributes to the other research done on racial disparities and health.
Smith, Carrie J, and Diane S. Young. “The Multiple Impacts of TANF, ASFA, and Mandatory Drug Sentencing for Families Affected by Maternal Incarceration.” Children and Youth Services Review 25.7 (2003): 535-552
This article provides an analysis on the implications of mandatory drug sentencing laws as well as the current laws pertaining to welfare and adoption. The authors of this article do a great job on illustrating the severity that drug sentencing laws have on minority and ethnic communities especially with concern for mothers who are incarcerated for drug offenses. A total of 69% of female federal prisoners are serving time for drug offenses. The authors use of national and state specific statistics help to demonstrate the rate to which racial disparities exist as a result of laws that target specific populations of people. For example, less than 5% of New York’s 1998 drug offender prisoners were white. From 1986-1991, the number of black women incarcerated increased by 828%. This article includes many more relevant and important data while also offering a multitude of possible solutions.
Tuyet-Lan Pho; Mulvey, Anne. “Southeast Asian Women in Lowell.” Frontiers: A Journal of Womens Studies 24.1 (2003): 101-129
This article which was co-authored by Tuyet-Lan and Mulvey highlights the major issues that are at the forefront of struggles faced by the Southeast Asian community in Lowell , Massachusetts . These concerns include domestic violence, gender based conflicts, traditional Southeast Asian culture verses U.S culture clashes, as well as intergenerational conflict. The authors offer a very impressive and compelling analysis of the problems that plague many Southeast Asian communities. The authors begin their discussion by elaborating on the history of violence that the Southeast Asian groups faced in their countries of origin. Then, the authors proceed to discuss the conditions that Southeast residents in Lowell are currently subject too in their new environments. A good portion of the article discusses the progress of a film project that was created as a means to educate the surrounding community on the severe problem of domestic violence. One of the many strengths of the article is that is really seeks to address the problems that can arise as a result of different cultural understandings. The language and organization of the paper makes the article very accessible to a very broad audience. The analysis presented in the article can be a useful tool when attempting to address major concerns for immigrant communities.
Ulman, Sarah E, and Henrietta H. Filipas. “Predictors of PTSD Symptom Severity and Social Reactions in Sexual Assault Victims.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 14.2 (2001): 369-389.
In this article, the authors present a study that examined the correlation between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and factors such as the demographics, assault circumstances, and post assault social reactions for a sample of 323 diverse female sexual assault victims. The study hypothesized that race is a factor is a significant factor that influences the types of social reactions victims receive. It was also believed that lower class ethnic minorities would receive more negative social reactions after disclosing their assaults. The findings demonstrate that race did in fact influence social reactions primarily for Hispanic and mixed race individuals. In summary, the article is very comprehensive and insightful. It relays the significant that social systems have in affecting individuals.
Visher, Christy A.; Travis, Jeremy. “Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding Individual Pathways.” Annual Review of Sociology 29.1 (2003): 89-113
In this journal article, the authors converse about an issue very prevalent in many of the current discussions that pertain to incarceration and recidivism of individuals when they integrate into society after serving their prison sentences. This article primarily reviews the previous literature that has focused on the affects of “prisoner reentry”. While the authors include an extensive analysis of the existing research, the authors clearly argue that the pre-existing research does not thoroughly acknowledge how recidivism is directly affected by reintegration, adjustment, as well as the personal and social environments that ex-prisoners are subject to. The authors also claim that in order for a more accurate account to be presented of the transition that individuals face when alternating from prison to the community, longitudinal type studies are essential. One very interesting point that the authors raise in this document is the need for more research to be conducted that looks exclusively at the affects that the prison experience, as a social environment, has on the individual. Overall, the article raises many important questions and concerns that are crucial to consider before conducting further studies.
Vogel, Richard D. “Capitalism and Incarceration Revisited” Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine, 55.4 (2003): 38-55
Richard Vogel, an independent socialist author, writes in a very well organized manner. In this particular piece, Vogel discusses the interwoven themes of capitalism and incarceration. He begins by giving a detailed account of the observable trends in the history of incarceration in the U.S. especially in relation to exponential growth. Moreover, a primary portion of Vogel’s analysis is geared towards pointing out the racial disparities that exist within the prison population of the U.S. Vogel is able to capture specific sentiments about incarceration by including specific narrative accounts from key historical figures, such as George Jackson. The article closes with a plea for revolutionary individuals to establish strong partnerships with their fellow prisoners as a powerful means to bring about true political transformation.
Webb, Elspeth; Maddocks, Alison; and Joan Bongilli. “Effectively Protecting Black and Minority Ethnic Children from Harm: Overcoming Barriers to the Child Protection Process.” Child Abuse Review 11 (2002): 394-410
In this fascinating article, the authors make the argument that there are currently significant barriers that disallow for the effective protection of children from Black and ethnic minority communities whom are at risk of harm. They support their claim by providing descriptive details from three case histories that demonstrate how black and minority children have not received the protection they deserve. The major indicators used to illustrate how child care agencies have been ineffective to the communities in question include the discernment of stereotyping, color blindness, cultural deficits and inadequate training of professionals. While it is important for professionals to be culturally competent and familiar with the demography that they are serving, one key point raised in the discussion is that professionals should not be passive or merely sympathetic when a child’s safety is in question. While these suggestions are important tools to be utilized for all communities, there is an extreme necessity that they be followed in ethnic and minority low income communities.