Laboratory Primate Newsletter Laboratory Primate Newsletter VOLUME 41 NUMBER 2 APRIL 2002
Articles and Notes
Body Weight and Bipedality in Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), by E. N. Videan & W. C. McGrew ......1
Intestinal Parasites of Macaca fascicularis in a Mangrove Forest, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, by Vo Dinh Son ......4
A Successful Program for Same- and Cross-Age Pair-Housing Adult and Subadult Male Macaca fascicularis, by L. M. Watson ......6
Mantled Howlers Cause a Decrease in Distance Between Members of a Group of Rufous-Naped Tamarins: A Field Experiment, by D. R. Rasmussen, I. Broekema, B. L. Chapin, & C. M. Chambers ......10
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Primates de las Américas…La Página ......3
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Body Weight and Bipedality in Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Elaine N. Videan and W. C. McGrew
Miami University
Introduction
Body weight is often used as an indicator of overall health and physical condition when evaluating captive (Terranova & Coffman, 1997) and wild (Wrangham, 1975) primates. Excess weight is thought to be a primary health problem for primates in captivity (Terranova & Coffman, 1997). Many environmental enrichment studies seek to increase the activity of captive primates, but changes in body weight are rarely examined (Hemphill & McGrew, 1998). For humans, the link between body weight and inactivity is well known (Chirico & Stunkard, 1960), but it is usually ignored for nonhuman primates. This is especially problematic when captive primates are used in ethological studies of activity, such as positional behavior, i.e., locomotion and posture (Prost, 1965; see also Curtis & Feistner, 1994; Rosenberger & Stafford, 1994).
This report examines the relationship of body weight to one aspect of activity, bipedality, in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).
Methods
The chimpanzees studied lived at the University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center Science Park (UTMDACC), near Bastrop, Texas. They lived in four groups of mixed sex and age, numbering nine to 14 individuals each. All groups were stable over the study. UTMDACC records gave actual or estimated dates of birth. Age classes were defined using Goodall’s (1986) system. We selected four each of adult males and females (14+ years), and one each adolescent male and female (8 to 14 years). Mean body weights were calculated from weights obtained by UTMDACC staff 6 to 24 months before the study began. The median body weight was 52.0 kg for females and 53.6 kg for males (Table 1).
The chimpanzees were observed in circular outdoor enclosures 22 m in diameter. Cement walls about 5 m high separated the subjects from staff and visitors. The substrate was flat sand and grass with two or three elevated flat wooden platforms (2 x 4 m each). “Arboreal” structures included horizontal and sloped wooden beams, horizontal metal pipes, and suspended ropes. Portable environmental enrichment objects, such as tubs, barrels, and balls, were usually available. Observation was done through 10 barred “windows” (1 x 2 x 1.5 m) along the enclosure’s periphery or, mostly, from a nearby rooftop deck.
Terrestrial positional behavior was recorded over two months by instantaneous focal-subject observations every 30 sec (Altman, 1974). This yielded a mean of 8.82 (± 1.02) hours of observations per individual. The data recorded included terrestrial positional behavior by type, function, and substrate; categories follow Hunt et al. (1996). Bipedal behavior was either postural or locomotor, with each either assisted or unassisted. Assisted bipedality was defined as upright posture or locomotion in which the legs support more than half the body weight with minimal support from another body part (e.g., arm resting against wall for balance). All cases of terrestrial bipedality, its function, and substrate for non-focal subjects visible during the experiment were also recorded on an all-occurrence basis.
| Subject | Sex | Age | Origin | Rearing | Weight | High-Weight? |
| Pepper | F | 32 | Wild | Mother | 76.5 | Y |
| Muffin | F | 18 | Captive | Mother | 63.8 | Y |
| Jana | F | 11 | Captive | Mother | 52.0 | Y |
| Junie | F | 33 | Wild | Mother | 48.2 | N |
| Alpha | F | 15 | Captive | Nursery | 44.9 | N |
| Big | M | 30 | Wild | Mother | 78.3 | Y |
| Moose | M | 29 | Wild | Mother | 63.8 | Y |
| CJ | M | 31 | Wild | Mother | 53.6 | N |
| Maynard | M | 27 | Wild | Mother | 52.1 | N |
| Radar | M | 9 | Captive | Mother | 36.6 | N |
Table 1: Demography of subjects listed by sex and ranked by weight.
Individuals were classed as high-weight (based on Kemnitz et al., 1989) if they weighed more than two standard deviations over the mean body weight of wild chimpanzees: 46.9 ± 4.9 kg for males and 41.2 ± 4.8 kg for females. The wild chimpanzee value used was calculated from published figures of eastern (P. t. schweinfurthii) and western (P. t. verus) chimpanzees (Videan, 2000). The three high-weight female chimpanzees had a median weight of 63.8 kg, versus a median of 46.6 kg for the two non-high-weight females. The two high-weight males had a median weight of 71.1 kg, versus 47.3 for the three non-high-weight males. The two groups were matched by age, sex, and rearing.
Observational data were summarized as bout rates per hour of positional behavior. The relationship between body weight and bipedality, controlling for sex, was tested using a Partial Correlation Coefficient (SPSS Software). The effect of weight on bipedality also was tested by comparing rates of bipedality for non-high-weight versus high-weight subjects, using a Mann-Whitney U-test (SPSS Software). Statistical significance was set at 0.05 and all tests were two-tailed.
Results
Heavier chimpanzees were less bipedal, at least in terms of total locomotor bipedality and unassisted locomotor bipedality (Table 2). For high-weight versus non-high-weight subjects, the lighter chimpanzees showed almost four times more total and unassisted bipedal locomotion than the heavier chimpanzees (Table 3).
| Type of Bipedality | R | P-value |
| Total Posture | -0.01 | 0.98 |
| Assisted | 0.25 | 0.51 |
| Unassisted | -0.20 | 0.60 |
| Total Locomotion | *-0.70 | 0.03 |
| Assisted | 0.17 | 0.66 |
| Unassisted | *-0.68 | 0.04 |
Table 2: Partial correlation between body weight (kg) and rates (per hour) of bipedality for subjects (N = 10), controlling for sex. * Significant correlation
| Type of Bipedality | High-weight | Non-high-weight | z-score | P-value |
| Total Posture | 1.00 ± 0.47 | 1.40 ± 0.53 | -1.26 | 0.21 |
| Assisted | 0.61 ± 0.48 | 0.69 ± 0.64 | -0.21 | 0.83 |
| Unassisted | 0.48 ± 0.19 | 0.71 ± 0.40 | -0.74 | 0.46 |
| Total Locomotion | 0.20 ± 0.23 | 0.78 ± 0.35 | -2.20 | *0.03 |
| Assisted | 0.04 ± 0.09 | 0.04 ± 0.06 | -0.39 | 0.70 |
| Unassisted | 0.16 ± 0.18 | 0.73 ± 0.32 | -2.20 | *0.03 |
Table 3: Mean (± standard deviation) rates (per hour) of bipedality by high-weight (N = 5) and non-high-weight (N = 5) chimpanzees (sexes combined). * Significant difference
Discussion
Researchers have long speculated on the relationship between body weight and positional behavior (Cant, 1992; Hunt, 1994; Doran, 1995), but most research has focused on arboreal locomotion. These studies linked greater body size with lower frequencies of arboreal locomotion, especially leaping, and their results have influenced speculation on the positional behavioral repertoire of early hominids. However, none of the previous studies directly addressed the relationship between body size and bipedality, either arboreal or terrestrial.
Wild primates often weigh less than their captive counterparts (Leigh, 1994). Differences in body weight may result from many factors, such as diet, activity, and biotic and abiotic environmental stressors. Whether the correlation observed here between bipedality and body weight is due to excess weight or greater overall mass, whatever their health status, awaits further study. In any case, behavioral studies of captive primates should report their body weights.
References
Altmann, J. (1974). Observational study of behavior: Sampling methods. Behaviour, 49, 227-267. Cant, J. G. H. (1992). Positional behavior and body size of arboreal primates: A theoretical framework for field studies and an illustration of its application. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 88, 273-283.
Chirico, A. M., & Stunkard, A. J. (1960). Physical activity and human obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 263, 935-940.
Curtis, D. J., & Feistner, A. T. C. (1994). Positional behavior in captive aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis). Folia Primatologica, 62, 155-159.
Doran, D. M. (1993). Sex differences in adult chimpanzee positional behavior: The influence of body size on locomotion and posture. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 91, 99-115.
Goodall, J. (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University.
Hemphill, J., & McGrew, W. C. (1998). Environmental enrichment thwarted: Food accessibility and activity levels in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Zoologische Garten, 68, 381-394.
Hunt, K. D. (1994). Body-size effects on vertical climbing among chimpanzees. International Journal of Primatology, 15, 855-865.
Hunt, K. D., Cant, J. G. H., Gebo, D. L., Rose, M. D., Walker, S. E., & Youlatos, D. (1996). Standardized descriptions of primate locomotor and postural modes. Primates, 37, 363-387.
Kemnitz, J. W., Goy, R. W., Flitsch, R. J., Lohmiller, J. J., & Robinson, J. A. (1989). Obesity in male and female rhesus monkeys: Fat distribution, glucoregulation, and serum androgen levels. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 69, 287-293.
Prost, J. H. (1965). A definitional system for the classification of primate locomotion. American Anthropologist, 67, 1198-1214.
Rosenberger, A. L., & Stafford, B. J. (1994). Locomotion in captive Leontopithecus and Callimico: A multimedia study. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 94, 379-394.
Terranova, C. J., & Coffman, B. S. (1997). Body weights of wild and captive lemurs. Zoo Biology, 16, 17-30.
Videan, E. N. (2000). Bipedality in bonobo (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes): Implications for the evolution of bipedalism in hominids. Master’s Thesis. Department of Zoology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.
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First author’s address: Dept of Zoology, Miami Univ., Oxford, OH 45056 [e-mail: videanen@muohio.edu].
We thank Dr. J. D. Preutz for arranging contacts at the UTMDACC Science Park; the staff at the Park; Susan Lambeth, Jessica Powell, and Steve Schapiro for special help; and the Department of Zoology, Miami University, for funding.
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Primates de las Américas...La Página
Nuevamente estamos aquí - después de nuestra ausencia del número anterior, iniciamos la participación de este 2002 comentándoles que a partir del siguiente número “La Página” tendrá un formato mas dinámico y mucho mas ágil a fin de facilitar la interacción entre los investigadores que nos favorecen con su lectura. Mientras esto sucede, concluimos esta etapa de “La Página” con la descripción de la interesante línea de investigación que formalmente se ha establecido en el Instituto de Ecología AC, de Xalapa, Veracruz, México. Sin duda, esta área de trabajo impulsará fuertemente la creación de un nuevo grupo de primatólogos de campo en México, los cuales han mostrado un real interés académico y sobre todo el genuino convencimiento en favor de la conservación de los primates nativos de México. Finalmente, les recomendamos poner atención a la nueva dirección institucional que les ofrecemos. Les enviamos un cordial saludo y estamos a sus órdenes Juan Carlos Serio Silva y Elva Mathiesen, División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, calle Ucase no. 117, Fracc. Bosques de Villahermosa, CP 86035, Villahermosa, Tabasco, México [e-mail: serioju@ecologia.edu.mx].
Análisis demográfico, conductual y genético del mono aullador (Alouatta palliata mexicana) y mono araña (Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus) en un paisaje fragmentado del sur de Veracruz, México
Investigador Responsable: Dr. Salvador Mandujano Rodríguez, Depto. Ecología y comportamiento animal, Instituto de Ecología AC, km. 2.5 antigua carretera a Coatepec, Ap. 63 CP 91000, Xalapa, Veracruz, México [e-mail: mandujan@ecologia.edu.mx].
Las poblaciones del mono aullador (Alouatta palliata mexicana) y mono araña (Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus) se han reducido en un 90% en la región de “Los Tuxtlas”, Veracruz, México, por lo que estas especies presentan problemas serios para su conservación. Lo anterior se debe a las altísimas tasas de deforestación del bosque tropical lluvioso que aparecía en esos sitios y que actualmente contiene hábitat disponible (relativamente intacto y extenso) únicamente en las partes altas de los volcanes, mientras que en las partes bajas la deforestación produjo una notable fragmentación del hábitat. Con base en lo anterior, muchos grupos de ambas especies de primates quedaron limitadas a vivir en pequeños parches de vegetación. Este es el escenario actual, por lo que es urgente proponer planes de conservación para los monos que se encuentran habitando este paisaje alterado. El presente proyecto de investigación tiene como objetivo principal analizar algunos de los posibles efectos de la fragmentación de la selva sobre aspectos demográficos, conductuales y genéticos de las poblaciones de Alouatta y Ateles, en una región de la zona sur dentro del área de amortiguamiento de la reserva de la biosfera “Los Tuxtlas”. En este trabajo proponemos como alternativa de conservación in situ, conocer la dinámica espacial y temporal de los grupos a una escala del paisaje. Este análisis permitirá definir la viabilidad, los procesos de flujo génico y el tamaño efectivo de la población, con el propósito de delimitar áreas asignadas como fragmentos más importantes y establecer una mayor conexión entre estos a través de la creación y/o mejoramiento de corredores.
Este proyecto se sustenta en las bases teóricas y metodológicas de la ecología del paisaje, la ecología poblacional y metapoblacional, la genética de poblaciones, y la biología de la conservación. Para lo cual se están planteando cinco objetivos:
1) Desarrollar un modelo del paisaje actual y potencial para conservación,
2) Analizar la dinámica poblacional local y metapoblacional para estimar la probabilidad de persistencia a nivel del paisaje,
3) Conocer la variación de aspectos conductuales como el forrajeo, uso y movimientos dependiendo de las características de los fragmentos,
4) Estimar la estructura genética, el flujo génico y la endogamia en individuos de los grupos, y
5) Proponer alternativas para incrementar la probabilidad de persistencia a nivel regional de ambas especies de primates.
Finalmente, con el presente estudio se pretende integrar investigadores de diversas disciplinas e instituciones, técnicos y estudiantes, con la finalidad de formar un nuevo equipo especializado y permanente en el campo de la primatología en el país.
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Intestinal Parasites of Macaca fascicularis in a Mangrove Forest, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Vo Dinh Son
Saigon Zoo
Introduction
In wild populations, as well as under captive conditions, macaques are easily infected by some pathological agents, including intestinal parasites. There have been reports of intestinal parasites in captive and free ranging crab-eating macaques (Macaca fascicularis) (Honjo et al., 1963; Kuntz & Myer, 1969; Matsubayashi & Sajuthi, 1981; Tada et al., 1983; Matsubayashi et al., 1992).
In Viet Nam, previous reports described intestinal parasite infection of some macaque and gibbon species at Saigon Zoo and Hanoi Zoo (Huan et al., 1989; Lang et al., 1999). However, there has been no published information on the state of endoparasite infection of crab-eating macaques in their natural habitat so far.
The objective of this preliminary study was to determine endoparasite species infecting the macaque population in a semi-natural setting, Can Gio Mangrove Park. Such information is necessary both for treatment of macaques and for prevention of parasite transmission between humans and macaques. It is also important to know the relationship between macaques and their habitat. This is the first report of intestinal infection in semi-wild, mangrove-living, crab-eating macaques.
Materials and Methods
Study area: This study was conducted at Can Gio Mangrove Park from August to September, 2000. The park is located 45 km east of Ho Chi Minh City and covers an area of 22.15 km2. A census carried out in July, 2000, found there were about 500 macaques in four groups.
Besides food provisioning at feeding sites by the Park officers, macaques often receive food from tourists. Thousands of tourists from Ho Chi Minh City visit the monkey park on weekends and holidays. For details of the study area, see Nam et al. (1997).
Sample collection: 118 stool samples were collected from fresh droppings at four feeding sites in the mornings. They were stored in vacuum flasks in ice and sent to the Diagnostic Laboratory, Sub-Department of Animal Health, Ho Chi Minh City, for identification. Feces were examined by sedimentation method and Willis’s method for detection of intestinal parasites.
Results and Discussion
Of 118 feces samples examined, 65 samples (55%) were positive, of which 52 were infected by one intestinal parasite species, 12 by two species, and one by three species (Table 1).
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Oesopha- Trichuris Tricho Trongyloides Ancylostoma No. of
gostomum trichiura stronglus Fulleborni duodenale positive
sp sp samples
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x 4
x 19
x 11
x 9
x 9
x x 6
x x 2
x x 1
x x x 1
x x 2
x x 1
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Table 1: Species of intestinal parasite found.The infection rate of each intestinal parasite is shown in Table 2.
| Species | Infected samples/ Samples examined | Rate (%) |
| Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) | 29/118 | 24.6 |
| Strongyloides fulleborni (threadworm) | 18/118 | 15.3 |
| Trichostrongylus (hairworms) | 15/118 | 12.7 |
| Ancylostoma duodenale (hookworm) | 12/118 | 10.2 |
| Oesophagostomum (nodular worms) | 4/118 | 3.4 |
Table 2: Prevalence of intestinal parasites.
These rates of infection are not the percent of macaques infected but the percent of samples infected. Since we may have taken samples from a single individual more than once, there may be a sampling bias. According to Huffman et al. (1997), the percent of individuals infected (individuals infected/total number of individuals analyzed) is always significantly higher than the percent of samples infected.
Five endoparasite species were detected in feces of Can Gio macaques, a smaller number than were found in macaques kept in the Vietnamese zoos.
According to Lang et al. (1999), macaques and gibbons at Hanoi Zoo were infected by one cestode species and 10 nematode species. Three intestinal parasite species found at a high rate were Ascaris lumbricoides (57.1%), Oesphgustomum sp. (35.7%), Ancylostoma sp. (21.4%). At Saigon Zoo, a survey on endoparasite infection was made by Huan & Thuy (1999). Five species of intestinal parasites were detected in crab-eating macaques: A. lumbricoides (40%) Ancylostoma sp. (40%), followed by Trichocephalus trichura, Oesophagostomum sp., and Enterobius sp. Although macaques at the two zoos mentioned were infected with A. lumbricoides at 57.1% and 40%, we found no eggs of A. lumbricoides in feces samples of the Can Gio macaques.
It was remarkable that all the five species found in the present study are nematodes, which do not need intermediate hosts to develop. Matsubayashi et al. (1991) suggested that intestinal helminth infection depends largely on the climates of the areas where the animals live. The limited number of species of endoparasites found in the macaques living in Can Gio suggests that such a forest lacks some intermediate hosts, so that the life cycles of helminth parasite species are interrupted. That is, their eggs or larvae cannot survive or continue to infect. We need to examine whether such a relationship is also found in other mangrove forests. It would be interesting to investigate relationships between parasite infection and macaque habitats.
References
Honjo, S., Muto, K., Fujiwara, T., Susuki, T., & Imaizumi, K. (1963). Statistical survey of internal parasites in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca irus). Japanese Journal of Medical Science and Biology, 16, 217-224.
Huan, L. U., & Thuy, L. T. (1999). Survey on helminth infestation of macaques, gibbons, chimpanzees and orangutans kept at Saigon Zoo (in Vietnamese). Unpublished BSc thesis, University of Forest and Agriculture, Ho Chi Minh City.
Huffman, M. A., Gotoh, S., Turner, A. T., Hamai, M., & Yoshida, K. (1997). Seasonal trends in intestinal nematode infection and medicinal plant use among chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania. Primates, 38, 111-125.
Kuntz, R. E., & Myer. J. B., (1969). A checklist of parasites and commensals reported for the Taiwan macaque (Macaca cyclopis Swinhoe, 1862). Primates, 10, 71-80.
Lang, P. S., Thanh, N. T. K., Tiep, M. Q., & Xuan, M. T. (1999). Situation on parasitism of primates in the zoo of Hanoi (in Vietnamese). Science et Technique Veterinaire, 6[3].
Matsubayashi, K., & Sajuthi, D. (1981). Microbiological and clinical examination of cynomolgus monkeys in Indonesia. Kyoto University Overseas Research Report of Studies on Indonesian Macaque, 1, 47-56.
Matsubayashi, K., Gotoh, S., Kawamoto, Y., Watanabe, T., Nozawa, K., Takasaka, M., Narita, T., Griffiths, O., & Stanley, M. A. (1992). Clinical examinations on crab-eating macaques in Mauritius. Primates, 33, 281-288.
Matsubayashi, K., Gotoh, S., Kawamoto, Y., Nozawa, K., Watanabe, T., Takasaka, M., Narita, T., Griffiths, O., & Stanley, M. A. (1991). Hematological, parasitological and microbiological examinations on crab-eating macaques in Mauritius. Kyoto University Oversea Research Report of Studies on Asian Non-human Primates, 8, 1-10.
Tada, M., Sugitani, T., Orita, S., Akita, T., Miyajima, H., & Imai, K. (1983). Identification of Edesonfilaria malayensis from cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) and description of the microfilariae. Japanese Journal of Parasitology, 32, 509-515.
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Author’s address: Saigon Zoo, 2 Nguyen Binh Khiem, Q1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam [084 9100885; fax: 084 8228309; e-mail: sgzooedu@hcm.vnn.vn].
The author would like to thank the Directorate and macaque keepers of Can Gio Mangrove Park for permission to investigate the macaques and for their assistance in the field. Thanks also to Dr. Shuichi Matsumura, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, for his comment on an earlier version of the manuscript.
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Editors’ Note: Thanks to Our Subscribers
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A Successful Program for Same- and Cross-Age Pair-Housing Adult and Subadult Male Macaca fascicularis
Lyna M. Watson
Wyeth Genetics Institute
Within the amendments to the Animal Welfare Act (1985 and 1991) are stipulations that research facilities promote the psychological well-being and environmental enrichment of nonhuman primates by social housing, when possible. A species that is widely used in such facilities is Macaca fascicularis, commonly called the cynomolgus (“cyno”) or long-tailed macaque. There have been some reports on pairing cynos, especially adult males (Crockett et al., 1994; Clarke et al., 1995; Asvestas & Reininger, 1998; Lynch, 1998; Seelig, 1998; Crockett, 2001), but it is commonly believed that adult cyno males do not tolerate one another well (Goosen et al., 1984; Clarke et al., 1986; Crockett et al., 1994; and Lynch 1998) while adult female cynos are usually amenable to pairing (Line et al., 1990; Schino et al., 1990).
When pairing animals, the species’ behavioral attributes must be considered (Line, 1987). Field data indicate that male cynos emigrate from their natal group in small groups more often as subadults than as full adults. Emigrations occur with one or more group-mates and the monkeys tend to migrate to groups where they know the resident males (Van Noordwijk & Van Schaik, 1985; Wheatley, 1982). This information is vital in understanding how best to begin pairing captive, adult cyno macaques. Based on the species’ naturally occurring behaviors, it should be easier to form pairs of younger males than adults. It is not impossible to pair-house adult male cynos, but it requires additional preparatory steps and closer monitoring. This report describes the process adopted by Wyeth-Ayerst Research (Genetics Institute) in Andover, Massachusetts, to form isosexual (same sex) pairs of cynos of both sexes in same-age (adult) or cross-age (adult + juvenile) pairs.
Beginning in May, 1999, the author designed a psychological well-being and behavioral management program which included pairing nonhuman primates. Initially, only four of 126 cynos on site were in an isosexual pair situation (about 3% of the population). Nearly 2.5 years later, 90 of 136, or 68%, are paired. This increase was achieved through a well-documented step-by-step process, requiring cooperation and constant communication between management, investigative, veterinary, husbandry, and behavioral personnel.
Prior to pairing adult- or cross-aged monkeys, a number of variables must be considered. Some of the variables are similar to those described by Clarke et al. (1995) and Hartner (2001) in their reports on first pair-housing, then group-housing, adult or sub-adult male cynos. Variables considered at our facility are presented below.
Subjects
The Genetic Institute’s nonhuman primate population is in constant flux. Presently, there are 136 cyno macaques (four ovariectomized females and 132 males). Ages range from approximately 2.5 to 12 years, with a weight range of 4.7 to 11 kg.
The monkeys are kept in rooms at 75º F. (± 2º), with relative humidity at 55% (± 5%), and a 12:12 light/dark cycle. They are fed twice a day (morning and afternoon) with commercial dry food; have ad libitum access to water; and are given fruit and/or treats five days/week. Their individual caging consists of four compartmentalized (two over two) units (Figure 1) equipped with perches. Each cage is 32” high, with 4.5 sq-ft of floor space. Removable mesh panels separate the compartments. These dividers allow visual and olfactory - but restrict tactile - communication between animals that are housed side-by-side. Between the upper two and lower cages solid dividers, provide privacy and also keep top-housed animals’ shavings, feces, and urine away from the bottom cages.
Figure 1: Four-compartment standard housing unit containing two pairs of M. fascicularis (top two on center perch and bottom two in right lower cage).
For standard environmental enrichment each animal is provided with a hanging mirror and one hard (dental or nylabone) and one soft (Kong or disc-shaped) floor toy. A food treat of fruit, flavored ice cubes, peanuts, or granola forage, is provided every day except weekends. All animals have visual, auditory, and olfactory communication with other monkeys within the room.
Procedures
Documentation: Each animal’s individual record contains a behavioral section with two forms referring to the pairing process: one to record observations on the animal’s behaviors during pairing, and the other a record of any previous pairings. The latter includes dates of pairings, outcome (successful or unsuccessful), possible reasons for unsuccessful pairings, and recommendations for future pairings. For example, a younger animal may not get along with adult individuals due to intimidation. An attempt is made to locate a comparably aged animal for the next pairing. A notation of “not a good pairing candidate” is listed in the file of any animal that fails to be paired with three different animals, along with the reasons, if known, for the failures.
Additional documentation includes separate listings of paired or singly-housed monkeys. By keeping separate summary sheets and distributing them to all staff members, everyone has up-to-date accounts of each animal’s housing situation. Keeping a copy of the pairing sheet outside every monkey room minimizes the possibility of animals that are no longer compatible being placed together; or compatible animals being separated for an extended time. Changes in these listings are the responsibility of the behaviorist (currently, the author).
Prior to pairing monkeys: With slight modifications, the process published by Reinhardt (1994) has been adopted for pair-housing cynos at this facility. The modifications include a less random approach (see below) to choosing candidates and a less rigid, slightly different definition of the macaques’ exhibition of a dominant/subordinate relationship. For instance, ideally, a newly formed pair would demonstrate grooming as an indicator of cementing their bond. But, to this author, once the animals display some other affiliative behaviors (such as perch sharing, cage sharing, comfortably consuming food and treats in company with the other, and teamwork - responding to the other’s solicitation of support in agonistic behaviors directed to humans or other monkeys), they may be suitable as a pair with restrictions (see Crockett et al., 1994, for definitions of types of pairs).
Variables to be considered:
1) Animal’s age, personality (i.e. withdrawn, active), gender, and social origin/experience (Novak & Suomi, 1988). Because an individual’s age and social history (experience) are rarely provided in the written record, it is necessary to “piece” together or extract as much information as possible from various entries. The age may be approximated by an animal’s size and/or more reliably by its dentition. If possible, candidates for pairing should have similar social backgrounds.
2) Animal’s location within its homeroom. The author prefers to pair monkeys who are not housed right next to one another or who have had no visual access (e.g., across the room) to each other for an extended period of time. This is because a relationship established in this housing situation may not transfer to being good cage mates.
3) The needs of the investigators to whom the animal is assigned. If possible, animals assigned to the same person and on the same protocol schedule/regime are paired. Ideally, the animals are paired prior to the commencement of any procedures. This allows the animals time to adjust, and the pairing procedure does not interfere with the investigator’s or staff’s work requirements.
4) Workload of the husbandry (caretaking) staff. Time must be allowed for them to move the animals into the “howdy” or side-by-side caging prior to pairing. This move is done towards the end of the week, on a Thursday or Friday. No pairings are scheduled during weeks when holidays or long weekends occur.
Four animals (two potential pairs) are placed in neutral (not the home cage of any individual) side-by-side caging with mesh panels separating them. This allows visual and auditory, but no tactile, communication (the noncontact familiarization period). The quad cage containing the four animals is placed in a room other than the animals’ homeroom. This neutral room should also contain other monkeys (paired or singly-housed). The “howdy” quad containing the potential pairs is located at the back of the room and turned to face the wall. This placement restricts the monkeys’ visual contact with other monkeys housed in the room, but does allow auditory and olfactory communication. For the next three to five days, behavioral observations are recorded, including any dominant/subordinate, affiliative, or aggressive interactions between members of potential pairs. Some behaviors that indicate pairing may proceed are: one or both animals spending time near the cage divider watching the potential cage mate (showing interest); or mimicking - e.g., picking up an enrichment device after the other animal does so. Behaviors which indicate a pairing should not proceed include: two animals sitting near the cage divider and exhibiting aggression (open-mouth threats or attempts to grab the potential cage mate); or one animal staying at the back of its cage, appearing fearful to approach or interact with the other.
During pairing:
1) Pairing begins early in the day to allow for maximum observation time. The animals are fed their regular chow allotment and given extra floor toys. Just prior to actual pairing both animals are given an extra food treat.
2) If the observer deems the animals’ behavior appropriate, i.e., there is no aggressive activity, then the divider between the monkeys is partially opened. This final stage of the pairing process is closely monitored and the animals’ behavior is recorded for the next four hours. This vigilance has contributed to a low frequency of injuries during this crucial stage. In the last 2.5 years only six of nearly three hundred animals have sustained injuries that required veterinary care during this period.
3) Some behaviors indicating a successful match include: perch sharing, cage sharing, comfort in acquiring and eating food, grooming, and demonstration of “team” types of behaviors: the two animals in tandem exhibit cooperative behaviors, i.e., defensive vocalizations and/or postures, either toward the observer or toward other monkeys in the room when visual contact is restored.
4) If the two monkeys exhibit most of the positive behaviors above, then they are allowed to stay together the first night. If none of the above behaviors are observed, then they are separated (the panel is re-inserted between their cages) for the first night and the pairing process continues the next day. After two days, a successful pair is returned to their homeroom in a quad placed at the rear of the room; any unsuccessful pairs are returned to their original homeroom, but in a single-cage and preferably not in the vicinity of the individual with whom the pairing failed.
Post-pairing:
1) Successful pairs’ IDs are placed on the summary pairs’ list and a completed observational form is added to each of their individual permanent files. The animals are monitored daily by husbandry and behavioral staff. Any problems with food consumption, aggression, etc., are listed on the summary pairs’ list. If one animal is intimidating the other, e.g., during feedings or treat distribution, a special color-coded tag is placed on their cages. The situation is noted on the pairs list and the tag indicates that the animals are to be separated by temporarily inserting the mesh panel between the cage halves during feeding or treat distribution. If a problem escalates, e.g., an animal is not receiving required food or severe fighting ensues, the pair is permanently separated. This is noted in their respective permanent records and their IDs are removed from the summary pairs’ list.
2) An individual animal is provided the opportunity to pair with up to three different animals. If the three attempts are all unsuccessful, a notation is made on the singly-housed list: “not a good social candidate”.
Discussion
Over one hundred and fifty pairings have been made at this facility in the last 2.5 years. This reflects the changing population of monkeys. A summary of the current population and their housing situations is presented in Table 1. These numbers reflect a paired population of nearly 68% of the total (90 out of 136) cynos housed on site. As mentioned earlier, one contributing factor to this success is the constant observation for the first four hours by a person trained and familiar with macaque behavior. Such vigilance has led to a low frequency of animals requiring veterinary care during this stage of the pairing process (only six of nearly 300 monkeys).
The observations and monitoring continue for two weeks after pairing. While only six animals have required veterinary care during the actual pairing process, there have been an additional seven animals that have sustained injuries during the first two weeks of pairing. Of these seven, five were re-paired successfully with their cagemates and no additional injuries occurred.
The day-to-day maintenance of an isosexual colony of paired male cynos is based on:
a) Thorough documentation and methods to ensure that animals are re-paired after any veterinary or scientific procedures. Communication between behavioral, husbandry, management, and research staff is crucial for such a socialization program to succeed.
b) Any modifications and/or adjustments to the pairing of monkeys are clearly disseminated to all pertinent staff members. This includes, for example, placing colored tags on the cages indicating that animals need to be separated for treats and/or food items; as well as different colored tags placed by research staff to indicate that an animal’s temporary separation from a cagemate is due to a scientific procedure (e.g., fasting).
| Number of Pairs | Type of Pair | Age Class at pairing | Time Together | Notes |
| 2 | female | adult | 15 months | none |
| 6 | cross-aged male | adult/sub-adult or juvenile | range: 3-17 mo.; mean: 13 mo. | Two pairs separated for food/treats |
| 5 | male | subadult or juvenile | range: 4-15 mo.; mean: 11 mo. | none |
| 31 | male | adult | range: 1 mo. to 3 yr; mean: 17 mo. | Seven pairs separated for food/treats |
Table 1: Histories and demographies of paired M. fascicularis. Of the 31 adult male pairs, two pairs are temporarily separated for medical reasons (one animal in each pair sustained injuries during minor fighting). Attempts to re-pair will occur in the near future.
References
Animal Welfare Act Amendments, Pub. 1l, No. 99-198 (1985).
Animal Welfare Act - Final Rule: Animal Welfare; Standards; Part 3. (1991). Federal Register, 55[32], 6426-6505.
Asvestas, C., & Reininger, M. (1999). Forming a bachelor group of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 38[3], 14-15.
Crockett, C. M., Koberstein, D., & Heffernan, K. S. (2001). Compatibility of laboratory monkeys housed in grooming-contact cages varies by species and sex (abstract). American Journal of Primatology, 54[Supp. 1], 51-52.
Crockett, C. M., Bowers, C. L., Bowden, D. M., & Sackett, G. P. (1994). Sex differences in compatibility of pair-housed adult longtailed macaques. American Journal of Primatology, 32, 73-94.
Clarke, M. R., Kaplan, J. R., Bumsted, P. T., & Koritnik, D. R. (1986). Social dominance and serum testosterone concentration in dyads of male Macaca fascicularis. Journal of Medical Primatology, 15, 419-432.
Clarke, A. S., Czekala, N. M., & Lindburg, D. G. (1995). Behavioral and adrenocortical responses of male cynomolgus and lion-tailed macaques to social stimulation and group formation. Primates, 36, 41-56.
Goosen, C., Van Der Gulden, W., Rozemond, H., Balner, H., Bertens, A., Boot, R., Brinkert, J., Dienske, H., Janssen, G., Lammers, A., & Timmermans, P. (1984). Recommendation for the housing of macaque monkeys. Laboratory Animals, 18, 99-102.
Hartner, M., Hall, J., Penderghest, J., & Clark, L. (2001) Group-housing subadult male cynomolgus macaques in a pharmaceutical environment. Lab Animal, 30[8], 53-57.
Line, S. W., Morgan, K. N., Markowitz, H., Roberts, J. A., & Riddell, M. (1990). Behavioral responses of female long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to pair formation. Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 29[4], 2-5.
Lynch, R. (1998) Successful pair-housing of male macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 37[1], 7-9.
Novak, M., & Suomi, S. (1988). Psychological well-being of primates in captivity. American Psychologist, 43, 765-773.
Reinhardt, V. (1994). Pair-housing rather than single-housing for laboratory rhesus macaques. Journal of Medical Primatology, 23, 426-431.
Schino, G., Maestripieri, K., Schucchi, S., & Turillazzi, P. G. (1990). Social tension in familiar and unfamiliar pairs of long-tailed macaques. Behaviour, 113, 264-272.
Seelig, D. (1998) Pair-housing male macaca fascicularis: A summary. Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 37[3], 20-22.
Van Noordwijk, M., & Van Schaik, C. P. (1985). Male migration and rank acquisition in wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Animal Behaviour, 33, 849-861.
Wheatley, B. P. (1982). Adult male replacement in Macaca fascicularis of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. International Journal of Primatology, 3, 203-219.
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Author’s address: Dr. Lyna M. Watson, Genetics Institute, Bioresources Dept., Bldg G., One Burtt Rd., Andover, MA 01810 [e-mail: lwatson@genetics.com].
I would like to thank Dr. Karen Krueger and the Operations and Clinical staffs for their assistance.
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Mantled Howlers Cause a Decrease in Distance Between Members of a Group of Rufous-Naped Tamarins: A Field Experiment
Dennis R. Rasmussen, Iris Broekema, Bridget L. Chapin, and Caryn M. Chambers
The Primate Foundation of Panama
The purpose of this experimental study was to learn how the presence of mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) might influence a group of rufous-naped tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi). Two howler monkeys were introduced onto an island where a group of five tamarins lived. Howler monkeys and tamarins are sympatric in many locations in Panama (Moynihan, 1970). We have also frequently observed howlers and tamarins close to each other on islands where they live together at the Primate Refuge and Sanctuary of Panama (PRSP). Systematic study of an introduction of these two species to each other should help guide management of groups of tamarins and howler monkeys that live in the same area and hence be useful to the PRSP and other refuges and zoological parks. The study also has bearing on evolutionary theories concerning the formation of more compact groups in the presence of danger, interspecies interactions, mixed-species associations, and social ecology.
Howlers and tamarins have not been observed to form mixed-species associations in completely natural environments. We have, however, observed howlers following tamarins at the PRSP. We have also seen an adult female howler monkey carry, sit next to, and be followed by an orphaned juvenile tamarin for weeks. In addition, placing the two species together on a small island forces them into proximity similar to that of natural mixed-species associations.
Mixed-species associations occur between many forest primates. Some associations are notable for their long-term stability (Buchanan-Smith, 1990) and some seem to occur more often than could be expected by chance (Holenweg et al., 1996). Mixed-species groups have the advantages of decreased risk of predation (Noë & Bshary, 1997; Chapman & Chapman, 2000), improved foraging success (Buchanan-Smith, 1999), and improved resource defense (Buchanan-Smith, 1991). Costs of mixed-species group formation are thought to be very low: mainly feeding competition (Terborgh, 1983) and the energy involved in maintaining association, e.g. calling when separated and choosing sleeping sites relatively near each other (reviewed in Heymann and Buchanan-Smith, 2000; see p. 185).
The portion of the multivariate study reported here is focused on how the presence of the howler monkeys influenced the spatial compactness, or group spread, of the tamarins. There are several ways in which the presence of the howlers might do this.
Because the howlers were about four times heavier than the tamarins (2000 grams compared to about 530 grams; see Rasmussen, 1989) and the tamarins had no previous experience in interacting with these two howlers, it is likely that the tamarins would initially react to them as a threat. Humans (Brigham, 1991), nonhuman primates (Rasmussen, 1983), and other animals (Hamilton, 1971) have been noted to bunch together when threatened or when confronted with a potentially dangerous situation. Williams provided an evolutionary theory to explain this pattern in fishes (1964), and Hamilton expanded and extended this theory to all animals (1971): by increasing proximity to conspecifics, an individual decreases the likelihood that it will be selected as the target of a predator. This theory may be broadened to nonpredators that could inflict damage. There are other evolutionary advantages of increased proximity in the face of a threat, such as exchange of information and group defense (Kummer, 1971).
Another way in which the howlers might influence group spread is by causing the tamarins to move more frequently. Mixed-species associations have been found to travel more than single species groups (Holenweg et al., 1996, Chapman and Chapman, 2000). Tamarin groups may become more compact when moving, hence howlers might cause a tamarin group to move more and thus have less group spread.
There are numerous observational and correlative studies showing that primates bunch together when faced with a potential danger (Altmann, 1974; Rasmussen, 1983). However, we found only one experiment on nonhuman primates that shows a causal relationship between the presence of a potential threat, a conspecific group, and decreased distance between group members (Zinner et al., 2001). We have found no previous study exploring the effect of a different species on intragroup spacing in nonhuman primates.
We used an experimental design from the experimental analysis of behavior, an A-B-A-B reversal design (Baer, Wolf & Risley, 1968), to determine whether the presence of the howlers would decrease the spread of individuals in a group of tamarins. We feel this approach holds considerable potential for field experiments conducted on nonhuman primates.
Methods
Experimental Design: The dependent variable was the estimated spread of a group of five tamarins. The maximum distance between any two group members was the measure used to assess group spread. Since group spread is a function of the movements of all individuals in the group, there was a single unit of analysis, the group of tamarins. The independent variable was the presence or absence of two juvenile howler monkeys.
Data were collected on the tamarin group from dawn to dusk during every condition of the experiment. The first baseline condition, A1, was conducted before the howlers were introduced. For the first experimental condition, B1, the howlers were present. The second baseline, A2, was conducted after the howlers were removed, and the final experimental condition, B2, after the howlers had been reintroduced. Four days of data were collected during each condition. The howler monkeys were placed on the island with the tamarins at 7:00 a.m., a few minutes before data collection on the first day of each experimental condition. The howlers were removed a few minutes before the initiation of data collection on the first day of the second baseline, A2.
Study Area and Study Animals: The group of five tamarins lives on Isla Tigrito II in Gatun Lake, Republic of Panama. This 2441 sq-m island is 117 m in length and varies from 10 to 35 m in width. It is located about 45 m off the northwest shore of Isla Tigre in the Tigre Islands near the Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal (see <www.primatesofpanama.org/lakemap.htm>). The vegetation is secondary neotropical forest, about 60 years old. Fruit bushes and trees provide food for the tamarins and howlers. In addition, the tamarins frequently catch insects and other arthropods, and the howlers eat the leaves of several species of trees. The food available on the island was supplemented with seven bananas every morning during the baseline conditions and, when the howlers were present, 14 bananas. The bananas were cut into 3-4 cm cross-sections. During all conditions there were always a few pieces of banana left at the end of the day. Bananas were placed on a wire mesh screen about 40 by 40 sq-cm and mounted 1.5 m above the ground in a tree with many aerial pathways to other trees.
The tamarin group consisted of an adult female, estimated to be less than 3 years old when introduced onto Isla Tigrito II on November 12, 1999; an adult male, introduced onto the island on November 14, 1999, when he was 13 months old; and three juvenile males, twins aged 13 months, and another aged 4 months. All three juveniles were the surviving offspring of the two adults.
We have never observed a howler to cause physical damage to a tamarin or vice versa. We used two juvenile howler monkeys that lived with another group of tamarins on Isla Tigrito I as the individuals to be introduced to the study group of tamarins. These howlers were known to be gentle with tamarins and were selected for this reason. The two howlers were unknown to the subjects in this experiment, and the tamarins had not had contact with other howlers for 9 months before the onset of the experiment. The howler monkeys were estimated to be 9 months old.
A group of four howler monkeys had lived on Isla Tigrito II from November 6, 1999 until September 22, 2000. The adult female and male tamarins of our study group had lived with them for 11 months, and the twins had lived with this group for the first four months of their lives. The youngest juvenile tamarin had never been with howlers before our study. The howlers that were introduced during the first experimental phase had never been with the tamarins on Isla Tigrito II.
The tamarins and the howlers were habituated to the presence of observers. The tamarins were subjects of a study of over one year duration and were also the subjects of a three-month study. Animal caretakers have visited the island to provide food every day from the first day that the tamarins were placed on the island. Observers could approach as close as 10 m to the tamarins before the tamarins moved away.
The male howler had been hand raised and bottle fed for four months. The female had been hand raised for one month. They had been released and were free ranging for two months on a nearby island before the onset of this study. They appeared to relish the return to their natural habitat and did not come closer than 10 m to observers or their previous handler. They were coaxed out of trees into the arms of their former caretaker with enticing food items. Once in her arms they were transported to Isla Tigrito II for each of the experimental phases.
Sampling Methods: Three teams of four students collected the data. Team members practiced data collection and were lectured on methods during an intensive three-day training period before the initiation of data collection. An experienced observer worked with the observation teams and monitored their data collection every day.
The first team collected data from 7:00 AM until 10:40 AM, the second from 10:40 AM till 2:20 PM, and the third team from 2:20 PM until 5:40 PM. The observation teams were moved to the previous shift each day so the teams collected data during a different shift for three sequential days. Recording sessions were broken up into 30-min sessions on focal subjects. Focal subjects were systematically sampled from a list of the five group members. Each of the five tamarins was focal sampled during every shift and the following shift picked up with the next tamarin on the list. Each tamarin was sampled at different times during every shift and every day. A mean of 50.06 2-min samples were collected on each tamarin per day (3.4 30-min sampling sessions per tamarin per day).
One team member observed the focal subject. Two other team members kept track of the distance separating the tamarins that were farthest apart and the location of the howler monkeys. The fourth team member entered the data into a laptop computer. The computer operator also called out two-minute intervals (audibly cued by the computer) to other team members.
The distance between the two tamarins that were farthest apart, estimated to the nearest meter, was used to assess group spread. Instantaneous samples were taken on group spread once every 2 min during the 30-min sessions. If all group members’ locations were not known at the moment of the instantaneous sample, no estimate was made. Instantaneous 2 min samples were also collected on the distance between the focal subject and the closest howler monkey. Six hundred and thirty-three group spread estimates were made during A1, 668 during B1, 821 during A2 and 786 during B2.
Observers kept 10 to 20 m away from the tamarins, and did not touch the tamarins or the howlers. Numbered aluminum posts about 1 m tall were placed in a straight centered line along the length of the island at 10-m intervals, promoting accuracy in distance estimates. In addition a wire was hung vertically in a visible central location on the island with ribbons tied at 2-meter intervals. This promoted accuracy in assessment of height differences. A 5 m by 5 m quadrat system was imposed on a map of the island. This map, in conjunction with the visual markers, further helped observers to accurately estimate distances.
Data were uploaded from the laptop to a desktop computer for editing within 24 hours of collection. The SPSS (10.0.7) statistical software system was used for file management, data description, and analysis.
Results
Statistical Analyses: The focus of this study is a single measure, group spread. This analysis is therefore treated as a repeated-measure study conducted on a single entity. As in classic applied behavioral analysis, we therefore use only descriptive statistics and graphical analyses. There is a long and complex history in the philosophy of science focused on single subjects that goes far beyond the scope of this article (see Iwata et al., 2000, for detailed discussions). We therefore note briefly that the goal of experiments is to prove cause and that the A-B-A-B single subject design used here can show that systematic manipulation of the experimental variable has a causal influence on the dependent variable.
Observer Effects: Although the tamarins were habituated to the presence of observers, they had not previously been observed by teams of four observers. Monkeys who have been observed for years may still become more habituated (Rasmussen, 1991). In addition, observers do change in their ability to collect data and can drift in data collection techniques (Martin & Bateson, 1993). Both observer effects on tamarins and changes in observers might therefore influence estimated group spread. To check these possibilities we examined the correlation between mean group spread per day and the cumulative number of days the tamarins were observed, hereafter referred to as number of observation days. Number of observation days seems likely to be sensitive to both increased habituation of the tamarins to the observers across the study (Rasmussen, 1979, 1991) and changes in the way in which observers collected data. A moderate positive correlation was found between group spread and cumulative days observed (r=. 34). If the tamarins became less afraid of the observers, they may have become less spatially compact as the study progressed. Observation teams may also have improved at having all tamarins in view so they could estimate group spread. This latter possibility is supported by a positive correlation between number of samples collected per day and number of observation days (r=+. 64).
Habituation and observer effects were statistically controlled by regression of mean group spread per day on number of observation days. The standardized residuals from this regression are the daily variation in group spread after removal of linear effects of number of observation days.
Effects of Howler Presence on Group Spread: The mean values of the standardized residuals of the regression of group spread on number of observation days are presented in Table 1. When these values are graphed in Figure 1 it is apparent that (1) group spread tended to be less when the howlers were present and (2) the difference between presence and absence of howlers decreased in A2-B2 compared to A1-B1.
| Condition of Experiment | Mean | Standard Deviation |
| baseline 1 (A1) | .2993 | .5250 |
| exp 1 (B1) | -.4115 | 1.1850 |
| baseline 2 (A2) | .1421 | 1.3909 |
| exp 2 (B2) | .0025 | .8218 |
Table 1: Mean and standard deviation of residualized group spread per condition of the experiment.
If the howlers were the causal factor responsible for changes in group spread, then it might be anticipated that the closer the howlers were to the tamarins, the smaller would be their group spread. To check this possibility, distances of howlers from focal subjects were grouped into four categories: 0-5m, 5-10m, 10-15m, and 15-20m. The residuals from the regression of group spread on number of observation days were again used in this analysis. As may be seen in Figure 2, tamarin group spread was negatively related to howler distance: the closer the howlers were, the less spread was the group.
Figure 1: Mean residualized group spread per experimental condition.
Figure 2: Mean residualized group spread by distance of the nearest howler from the focal tamarin.
Discussion
The results of this experiment indicate that the presence of howlers caused a decrease in the group spread of the tamarin group. The results also indicate that this effect decreased from the first to the second experimental condition. A theoretically satisfying explanation for these effects is that the tamarins initially perceived the howlers as a danger but they became more habituated to them, as they do to human observers. This explanation is satisfying since there is a fully developed theory to account for a decrease in group spread in the face of danger (Hamilton, 1971). Habituation of primates to the presence of other species of primates, human observers, is also well documented (Rasmussen,1998).
Other potential explanations exist. For example the presence of the howlers may have led the tamarins to move more about the island (and vice versa) and this movement caused the group spread to decrease. By the second experimental condition, the presence of howlers might have diminished the abundance of clumped natural food sources forcing the tamarins to spread out more when the howlers were present. Further analyses of the other variables collected in this multivariate experiment may help shed light on the exact causal mechanism(s) responsible for decreased group spread when the howlers were present.
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Martin, P., & Bateson, P. (1993). Measuring behavior: An introductory guide, Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Moynihan, M. (1970). Some behavior patterns of Platyrrhine monkeys. II. Saguinus geoffroyi and some other tamarins. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 28, 1-60.
Noë, R., & Bshary, R. (1997). The formation of red colobus-diana monkey associations under predation pressure from chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 264, 253-259.
Rasmussen, D. R. (1979). Correlates of patterns of range use of a troop of yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus). I. Sleeping sites, impregnable females, births, and male emigrations and immigrations. Animal Behaviour, 27, 1098-1112.
Rasmussen, D. R. (1983). Correlates of patterns of range use of a troop of yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus). II. Spatial structure, cover density, food gathering, and individual behavior patterns. Animal Behaviour, 31, 834-856.
Rasmussen, D. R. (1989). Social ecology and conservation of the Panamanian tamarin. Anthroquest, 40, 12-15.
Rasmussen, D. R. (1991). Observer influence on range use of Macaca arctoides after 14 Years of observation? Laboratory Primate Newsletter, 30[3], 6-11.
Rasmussen, D. R. (1998). Changes in range use of Geoffoy’s tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi) associated with habituation to observers. Folia Primatologica, 69, 153-159.
Terborgh, J. (1983). Five New World primates. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Williams, G. C. (1964). Measurement of consociation among fishes and comments on the evolution of schooling. Publications of the Museum, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Biological Series, 2, 351-383.
Zinner, D., Hindahl, J., & Kaumanns, W. (2001). Experimental intergroup encounters in lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus). Primate Report, 59, 77-92.
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The first author is the Director, and the second author the Development Manager of the Primate Refuge and Sanctuary of Panama
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The Research Defence Society in the U.K. has launched a new campaign in support of scientists’ work with animals in biomedical research. A publication, The Hope, The Challenge, The People, explores the issue of animal research through the eyes of six people: a patient, a general practitioner, a surgeon, a researcher, an animal technician, and a veterinarian. It is available as a pdf file at <www.rds-online.org.uk/pdf/leaflet.pdf>. Two subsidiary publications, which will be updated annually, provide facts and figures on animal research in the U.K. and a guide to sources of information. - from an Americans for Medical Progress press release
Used Handheld Computers Available
The Kahn Research Group has four Psion workabout handheld computers loaded with the Noldus Observer Mobile package for sale. The units have less than 30 hours of use each. They were used in an indoor environment for a marketing behavioral research study. These items are basically brand new and come with a charger, a serial sync cable, all observer mobile software, memory cards, and four licenses. For general information about the Observer, see <www.noldus.com>. For more information about these used Psions, contact Benjamin Epstein, Chief Technology Officer, Kahn Research Group, 13809 Cinnabar Pl., Huntersville, NC 28037 [704.947.9299; fax: 775.227.0524; e-mail: ben@kahnresearch.com].
New Edition of Comfortable Quarters
A new edition of Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals, edited by V. and A. Reinhardt, is available at: <www.awionline.org/pubs/cq02/cqindex.html>. Contents include “The ill-effects of uncomfortable quarters”, by W. M. S. Russell; and “Comfortable quarters for primates in research institutions”, by V. Reinhardt.
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* Duke University, Department of Biological Anthropology and Anatomy
England
* University of Liverpool Hominid Palaeontology Research Group (Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology) and School of Archaeology, Classics and Oriental Studies (Department of Archaeology)
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The National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) is seeking small grant (R03) applications to stimulate and facilitate the entry of promising new investigators into areas of research of interest to the NIAMS, that is, arthritis and musculoskeletal and skin diseases and injuries. This solicitation will provide support for pilot research that is likely to lead to a subsequent individual research project grant (R01). Foreign organizations and institutions are not eligible. Participation in the program by investigators at minority-serving institutions is strongly encouraged. Grants awarded through this program may not be used to support thesis or dissertation research. Investigators who have questions about eligibility should contact one of the program officials listed below. For detailed information about scientific areas of interest to the NIAMS, applicants are encouraged to refer to <www.niams.nih.gov>.
Direct inquiries as follows: Rheumatic Diseases: Immunology and Inflammation: Elizabeth Gretz, Rm. 5A19J [301-594-5032; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: gretze@mail.nih.gov]; Cartilage and Connective Tissue: Bernadette Tyree, Rm 5AS-37J0 [301-594-5032; fax: 301-594-4543; e-mail: TyreeB@mail.nih.gov]; Behavioral and Prevention Research: Deborah Ader, Rm. 5A19H [301-594-5032; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: aderd@mail.nih.gov]; Genetics and Clinical Trials: Susana A. Serrate-Sztein, Rm 5AS-37G [301-594-5032; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: SzteinS@mail.nih.gov]; Muscle Biology: Richard W. Lymn, Rm 5AS-49E [301-594-5128; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: LymnR@mail.nih.gov]; Musculoskeletal Diseases: Osteoarthritis Initiative and Diagnostic Imaging: Gayle E. Lester, Rm 5AS-43C [301-594-5055; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: gl83g@nih.gov]; Orthopedics and Bioengineering: James S. Panagis, Rm 5AS-37K [301-594-5055; fax: 301-594-4543; e-mail: jp149d@nih.gov]; Bone Biology: William J. Sharrock, Rm 5AS-37A [301-594-5055; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: SharrocW@mail.nih.gov]; Bone Diseases: Joan McGowan, Musculoskeletal Diseases Branch, Rm 5AS-43E [301-594-5055; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: Mcgowanj@mail.nih.gov]; and Skin Diseases: Alan N. Moshell, Rm 5AS-25L [301-594-5017; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: alan_n_moshell@mail.nih.gov]. All addresses are at 45 Center Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892-6500. Application receipt dates will be June 21 and October 18, 2002; February 21, June 20, and October 17, 2003.
NIAMS Career Transition Award
The goals of the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) Career Transition Award program are to enable outstanding individuals to obtain a research training experience in the NIAMS Intramural Research Program and to facilitate their successful transition to an extramural environment as independent researchers. The award will provide two to three years of support for research training in a NIAMS intramural laboratory followed by two to three years of support for an independent research project in an extramural institution. It is anticipated that awardees will subsequently obtain research project grants to support the continuation of their work.
The Intramural Research Program at NIAMS conducts basic, translational, and clinical research. Intramural investigators pursue diverse projects in biomedical research ranging from fundamental analyses of protein structure and function involving crystallography, cryoelectron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy, through protein chemistry, cell biology, signal transduction, gene regulation, tissue development and differentiation, genetics, and immunology, to more directly applicable research on the genetics, etiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of a variety of rheumatic, autoimmune, inflammatory, joint, skin, and muscle diseases. Information about potential intramural mentors can be obtained at: <www.niams.nih.gov/rtbc/index.htm>. For details about the Career Transition Award program, see <grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PAR-02-056.html>.
Tolerance for Heart and Lung Transplantation
The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) <www.nhlbi.nih.gov> encourages submission of applications for the development of organ-specific tolerance protocols using * large animal models for heart transplantation, and * both large and small animal models for lung transplantation. The long-range goal is to provide animal models that may be used for preclinical studies of immune tolerance induction, specifically in heart or lung studies, and improve the long-term quality of life and survival of recipients of heart and lung transplants.
In rodent models, numerous strategies have been used successfully to induce tolerance to heart transplantation. However, these strategies have not been reproducible for heart transplantation in large animal models, such as nonhuman primates or miniature swine. Although the rodent is an economical model for identifying strategies of tolerance induction, its immune system may be too different from that of the human to serve as a pre-clinical model. Ethical considerations require a more suitable pre-clinical model to more accurately predict how the protocol will work in humans. Thus, a large animal model, with an immune system more reflective of the human immune system, is essential for testing heart and lung tolerance protocols before moving into clinical studies. The primary focus for immune tolerance in lung transplantation at present, however, is to develop protocols in small animal models that can be moved into large animals.
This announcement seeks to encourage multidisciplinary research that will focus on elucidating methods and mechanisms of antigen-specific tolerance induction and maintenance in clinically relevant animal transplant models. Specific examples of areas of research interest may include, but are not restricted to, the following: * Definition and manipulation of specific immune pathways involved in the induction and maintenance of antigen-specific tolerance, including: co-stimulatory pathways, cytokine modulation, the role of adhesion molecules, and leukocyte migration. * Identification of allo-reactive lymphocyte subsets and their correlation with functions such as inflammation, homing and migration. * Determination and validation of biomarkers of antigen-specific immune tolerance. * Studies of the genetics of tolerance induction and long-term maintenance of tolerance. * Elucidation of the molecular, biochemical and cellular mechanisms involved in the loss of antigen-specific tolerance. * Use of very young animals to determine whether it is easier to induce tolerance in a young animal before the immune system is mature.
Direct questions about scientific/research issues to: Judith Massicot-Fisher, Division of Heart and Vascular Disease, NHLBI, Rockledge II, Rm 9184, Bethesda, MD 20892-7940 [301-435-0528; fax: 302-480-1454; e-mail: Massicoj@nih.gov]; or Dorothy Gail, Lung Biology and Diseases Program, Division of Lung Diseases, NHLBI, Rockledge II, Rm 10100, Bethesda, MD 20892-7952 [301-435-0222; fax: 301-480-3557; e-mail: GailD@nih.gov].
NIA Pilot Research Grant Program
The National Institute on Aging (NIA) is seeking small grant applications in specific areas to: * stimulate and facilitate the entry of promising new investigators into aging research, and * encourage established investigators to enter new targeted, high priority areas in this research field. This Small Grant Program provides support for pilot research that is likely to lead to a subsequent individual research project grant that is focused on aging and/or a significant advancement of aging research.
The 24 objectives listed in the announcement (see <grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PAR-02-049.html>) are grouped under * Improve Health and Quality of Life of Older People * Understand Healthy Aging Processes * Reduce Health Disparities Among Older Persons and Populations * and Enhance Resources to Support High Quality Research. One objective in the last category is: “Development of new and informative animal models for aging research, including genetically defined and or genetically altered animals.” The National Institute on Aging will modify the selected topic areas annually by reissuing the program announcement. Information on other initiatives supported by NIA may be found at <www.nih.gov/nia>. Application receipt dates are March 15, July 15, and November 15, 2002.
Direct questions to: David B. Finkelstein, Biology of Aging Program, NIA, 7201 Wisconsin Ave, Suite 2C231, MSC 9205, Bethesda, MD 20892-9205 [301-496-6402; fax: 301-402-0010; e-mail: BAPQuery@nia.nih.gov]; Judy Finkelstein, Neuroscience and Neuropsychology of Aging Program, NIA, 7201 Wisconsin Ave, Suite 3C307, MSC 9205, Bethesda, MD 20892-9205 [301-496-9350; fax: 301-496-1494; e-mail: NNAQuery@nia.nih.gov]; or Wanda Solomon, Geriatrics Program, NIA, 7201 Wisconsin Ave, Suite 3E327, MSC 9205, Bethesda, MD 20892-9205 [301-435-3046; fax: 301-402-1784; e-mail: GPQuery@nia.nih.gov].
Links Between Immune System and Brain Function
The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), National Institute on Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), and National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) request research grant applications to study neuroimmune molecules and mechanisms involved in regulating normal and pathological central nervous system (CNS) function.
Areas of interest include development and extension of animal models of immune signaling in the brain: e.g. * Model chronic therapeutic administration of cytokines as used in chemotherapy to examine the mechanisms responsible for effects on mood and cognition; * Develop and refine models to examine the potential effects of pre- and post-natal infection on brain development and adult brain function and behavior; * Model effects of acute and chronic immune challenge on neuroendocrine systems, neurochemistry, electrophysiology, molecular signaling, and gene expression in neurons; * Model neural effects of autoantibodies and other immune molecules implicated in autoimmune disorders affecting mental health; * Examine the potential role of abnormalities of the blood/brain barrier in determining neuroimmune responses.
NIAMS also solicits applications to study immune-CNS interactions in rheumatic diseases. Research could improve significantly with the development of new techniques and with the development of new animal models to explore the pathogenesis of cognitive and psychiatric disorders in the rheumatic diseases.
Direct questions to: Lois Winsky, Division of Neuroscience and Basic Behavioral Research, NIMH, 6001 Executive Blvd, Rm 7184, MSC 9641, Bethesda, MD 20892-9641 [301-443-5288; fax: 301-402-4740; e-mail: lois@helix.nih.gov]; Ursula Utz, Program Director, Neural Environment, NINDS, 6001 Executive Blvd, Rm 2134, Bethesda, MD 20892-9521 [301-496-1431; fax: 301-480-2424; e-mail: utzu@ninds.nih.gov]; Charles Sharp, Division of Neuroscience and Behavior Research, NIDA, 6001 Executive Blvd, Room 4269, Bethesda, MD 20892 [301-435-1887; fax: 301-594-6043; e-mail: sharp@ngmsmtp.nida.nih.gov]; or Deborah N. Ader, Director, Behavioral and Prevention Research Program, NIAMS, 45 Center Dr., Bldg 45, Rm 5A19H, Bethesda, MD 20892-6500 [301-594-5032; fax: 301-480-4543; e-mail: aderd@mail.nih.gov].
Applications will be accepted up to the standard application deadlines, which are available at <grants.nih.gov/grants/dates.htm>.
Innovation Grants for AIDS Research
The National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB), Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR), Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), and Mental Health (NIMH), encourage the submission of applications to bring new, scientifically challenging and untested ideas into AIDS research.
The sponsoring NIH institutes are seeking applications in the areas of therapeutics discovery, microbicide discovery, and pathogenesis research. Direct inquiries regarding programmatic issues to: Carl W. Dieffenbach, NIAID, Rm 4133, MSC-7626, 6700-B Rockledge Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892-7626 [301-496-0637; fax: 301-402-3211; e-mail: cdd@nih.gov]; Joan Harmon, NIBIB, 31 Center Dr., Rm 1B37, MSC 2077, Bethesda, MD 20892-2077 [301-451-6772; fax: 301-480-4515; e-mail: harmonj@nibib.nih.gov]; Robert Nugent, NICHD, Rm 4B11C, MSC-7510, 6100 Executive Blvd., Bethesda, MD 20892-7510 [301-435-6871; fax: 301-496-8678; e-mail: nugentr@mail.nih.gov]; Dennis Mangan, NIDCR, Rm 4AN-32F, MSC-6402, 45 Center Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892-6402 [301-594-2421; fax: 301-480-8318; e-mail: Dennis.Mangan@nih.gov]; Frank A. Hamilton, M.D., NIDDK, Democracy 2, Rm 669, MSC-5450, 6707 Democracy Blvd., Bethesda, MD 20892-5450 [301-594-8877; fax: 301-480-8300; e-mail: fh14e@nih.gov]; or Dianne M. Rausch, NIMH, 6001 Executive Blvd, Rm 6212, MSC 9619, Bethesda, MD 20892-9619 [301-443-7281; fax: 301-443-9719; e-mail: dr89b@nih.gov]. Applications will be accepted at the standard application deadlines; see above.
Fogarty International Research Collaboration Award
The Fogarty International Research Collaboration Award (FIRCA) facilitates collaborative research between U.S. biomedical scientists supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and investigators in the developing countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean region, as well as in countries of the former Soviet Union, and in central and eastern Europe. The FIRCA will extend and enhance the research interests of both the U.S. scientist and the collaborating scientist, and will help to increase the research capacity of the foreign scientist and institution. Awards are made to the U.S. applicant institution to support a collaborative research project that will be carried out mainly at the foreign collaborator’s research site. Direct costs of $32,000 per year are available for up to three years to help cover purchase of supplies and equipment, technical assistance at the foreign collaborator’s laboratory or research site, a small salary or consultant fee for the foreign investigator, and travel for the collaborators and their research associates, as justified by the needs of the research.
All biomedical and behavioral research topics supported by the NIH are eligible for inclusion under this program. Investigators working on topics related to human immunodeficiency virus, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or related illnesses should apply for the Fogarty International Center’s HIV/AIDS and Related Illnesses Collaboration Award (AIDS-FIRCA): see <www.nih.gov/fic/programs/aidsfirc.html>.
Direct your questions about scientific/research issues to Kathleen Michels, Program Officer, Div. of International Training and Research, Fogarty International Center, Bldg 31, Rm B2C39, 31 Center Dr., MSC 2220, Bethesda, MD 20892-2220 [301-496-1653; fax: 301-402-0779; e-mail: FIRCA@nih.gov]; or Janice Solomon, Program Specialist, same address and phone numbers [e-mail: solomonj@mail.nih.gov]; and see <grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-02-057.html>.
Application receipt dates are July 25 and November 25, 2002.
Cortical Control of Neural Prostheses
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institutes of Health, announces the availability of a Request for Proposals (RFP) to support research on Cortical Control of Neural Prostheses. The goal of this research is to establish the feasibility of generating control signals from cortical neurons involved in the voluntary control of limb movement. The focus of this research will be on the development of chronic microelectrode recording techniques in primates with a gyrencephalic brain, which can realistically be adapted to human implantation. There will also be research on extracting control signals from the recorded neural activities. Results from this area of research are needed by the Neural Prosthesis Program for providing information on the design of microelectrode recording arrays, the selection of recording sites, the number of cells required for providing stable and functional control signals, and the plasticity in recorded cell populations when the neural activity is co-opted to control an artificial device. Based on the results of these studies, the contractors will make recommendations about the feasibility of future human studies. Experiments on human subjects, however, are not included in the current supported research program. It is anticipated that two cost-reimbursement type contracts will be made for a period of four years in September, 2002. The RFP is available at <www.fedbizopps.gov> or at <www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/currentrfps.htm>.
Inquiries may be directed to: Desiree Wheeler, Contract Specialist, Contracts Management Branch, NINDS, NIH, NeuroScience Center, Suite 3287, 6001 Executive Boulevard, MSC 9531, Bethesda, Maryland 20892 [301-496-1813; e-mail: dw76q@nih.gov].
Mentored Research Scientist Development Award
The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease (NIDDK) invites applications for Mentored Research Scientist Development Awards from basic scientists interested in pursuing research careers in the areas of diabetes, endocrinology, metabolic disorders, digestive diseases, nutrition, obesity, and kidney, urologic, and hematologic disorders. The intent of these awards is to provide support for the critical transition period between postdoctoral training and independent funding for non-clinical investigators. Candidates must justify the need for a three-, four-, or five-year period of mentored research experience and provide a convincing case that the proposed period of support will substantially enhance his/her career as an independent investigator.
For information, contact James Hyde, Div. of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases, NIDDK, 6707 Democracy Blvd., Rm 609, MSC 5460, Bethesda, MD 20892-5460 [301-594-7692; e-mail: jh486z@nih.gov]; Judith Podskalny, Div. of Digestive Diseases and Nutrition, NIDDK, 6707 Democracy Blvd., Rm 667, MSC 5450, Bethesda, MD 20892-5450 [301-594-8876; e-mail: jp53s@nih.gov]; or Terry Rogers Bishop, Div. of Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Disorders, NIDDK, 6707 Democracy Blvd., Rm 619, MSC 5458, Bethesda, MD 20892-5458 [301-594-7717; e-mail: tb232j@nih.gov].
SPF Rhesus and Pigtailed Macaque Colonies
The National Center for Research Resources (NCRR, see <www.ncrr.nih.gov>) is soliciting applications for the establishment of additional colonies of Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) rhesus macaques. Proposals are sought from prospective grantees who can breed rhesus and pigtailed macaques that are SPF and provide them to NIH grantees for AIDS-related research. The term SPF in the context of this solicitation is defined as animals free (antibody negative) of herpes B virus; simian immunodeficiency virus; Type D simian retrovirus; and simian T-lymphotropic virus. The presence of the retroviral infections makes the infected animals unsuitable for AIDS-related research projects. Although the herpes B virus does not appear to compromise AIDS-related investigations, the potential health risks for personnel dictate that the breeding colonies must be free of this virus as well.
It is also recognized that there is a special need for Major Histocompatability Complex (MHC)-defined rhesus macaques for certain types of AIDS-related research. A major component of the evaluation of AIDS vaccines in nonhuman primates and in humans is the measurement of virus-specific T-cell immune responses. The majority of immunogenic Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) bind to MHC class I molecules. Thus, the screening of such animals should be included as a component of the application. This may involve establishing a collaborative arrangement with facilities that are capable of providing MHC screening. Selected pedigree breeding for specific MHC type I haplotypes could then be initiated. A specific example is if collaborative arrangements have been established for the screening of MHC-1 haplotype, such an arrangement would facilitate the genetic management of the colonies to provide genetically defined animals for AIDS research. Such animals could be invaluable for the AIDS research community.
Direct your questions to: Jerry A. Robinson, Div. of Comp. Medicine, NCRR, 1 Rockledge Centre, Rm 6164, 6705 Rockledge Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892 [301-435-0744; fax: 301-480-3819; e-mail: jerryr@ncrr.nih.gov]. The application receipt date is April 25, 2002.
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Viktor and Annie Reinhardt have updated and expanded the Annotated Bibliography on Refinement and Environmental Enrichment for Primates Kept in Laboratories. The update is available at the old Website:
<www.awionline.org/lab_animals/biblio/index.html>.
Headings include: Extraneous Variables; Refinement; Environmental Enrichment; and Ethical Considerations.
Guide to Behavioral, Social Sciences Grants at NIH
The NIH Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (OBSSR) is launching a new e-mail service for announcing NIH funding opportunities in the behavioral and social sciences. OBSSR will distribute monthly a listing of, and hyperlinks to, recent funding announcements (Program Announcements, Requests for Applications, Notices) published in the NIH Guide to Grants and Contracts.
To receive these monthly announcements, send an e-mail message to <listserv@list.nih.gov>. The message should read “SUBscribe BSSR-Guide-L [your full name].” The message is case sensitive, so capitalize as indicated! Don’t include the brackets. The subject line should be blank. You will receive back an acknowledgement of your subscription that will also provide instructions on how to unsubscribe from the list.
For more information, contact: Ronald P. Abeles, OBSSR, NIH, Gateway Bldg, Rm 2C234, 7201 Wisconsin Ave, MSC 9205, Bethesda, MD 20892-9205 [301-496-7859; fax: 301-435-8779; e-mail: abeles@nih.gov].
Mammalian Species Information
The American Society of Mammalogists has put 631 mammalian “species accounts” on-line as pdf files. These are technical, peer-reviewed summaries of everything known about 631 different species (although some of the older ones may be getting a bit out of date). There are five primate species included (Callithrix pygmaea, Leontopithecus rosalia, Callicebus moloch, Pan troglodytes, and Pongo pygmaeus). See <www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/msiaccounts.html>.
New Enrichment Lists
The Primate Enrichment Forum has been split into two new e-mail lists: The Laboratory Primate Enrichment Forum (L-PEF) will be open only to personnel of primate laboratories. Members will need to demonstrate that they work in a research facility or are affiliated with a relevant organization, such as AALAS. The Zoological Environmental Enrichment List (ZEEL) will be open to all for discussion of enrichment for all exotic animal species. While the ZEEL is intended primarily for zoological parks and sanctuaries, anyone who is interested in animal enrichment will be invited to subscribe. For information about these lists, which will be starting up soon, contact David Seelig, Volen Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454 [e-mail: seelig@aya.yale.edu].
More Interesting Websites
* Anesthesia of Exotic Animals: <www.ispub.com/journals/IJA/Vol2N3/zoo.htm>
* Cognitive Science journal:
<www.elsevier.nl/inca/publications/store/6/2/0/1/9/4/>
* Database of medical, pharmaceutical, etc. abbreviations, also usable for Palm Pilots: <www.pharma-lexicon.com>
* Discovering Chimps: <biosci.cbs.umn.edu/chimp/>
* Research Network Job Site: <www.researchnetwork.com>
* Primate Enrichment Network: <primate-enrichment.net>
* Students’ Primate Conservation Grant Locator: <www.primate.wisc.edu/pin/grants.html>
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Continuing Education for Laboratory Animal Technicians/Technologists will be offered at SUNY Delhi’s College of Technology during 2002. The following courses will be offered; additional courses may be added later. For further information and registration, contact Jackie Howard, SUNY, 136 Farnsworth Hall, Delhi, NY 13753 [607-746-4305; e-mail: howardja@delhi.edu].
Laboratory Animal Technologist Review is a formal lecture and demonstration course, designed to aid the qualified candidate in preparing for the national AALAS Certification Examination for Laboratory Animal Technologists. The candidate is encouraged to take the exam as soon as possible after completion of the review class. The goal of the course is to embellish the course outline for the Technologist certification level and to concentrate on those areas where the candidate feels an academic weakness. The candidate must submit an application to AALAS according to protocol. Reference study material will be mailed to participants when the College of Technology receives registration for the review class. The class will be held June 9-14, 2002, with a registration deadline of May 17. The course fee is $550 ($500 before May 1). Instructors are Ken Pyle, LATG, and staff.
Applied Primatology is an introduction to the biology and husbandry of nonhuman primates used in biomedical research. It includes hands-on experience in catching and restraining primates, administering drugs and compounds, and collecting samples, plus a description of different housing regimes, anesthesia, TB testing, and physiological data collection (ECG, blood pressure, and pulse oximetry). Registrants must provide evidence of a current (within one year) negative TB test. One-day classes will be held May 30 and June 8, 2002, with registration deadlines of May 16 and May 24, respectively. The fee for each is $250, with an early registration fee (before May 1 or May 15, respectively) of $225. The instructor is Ken Pyle.
Parasitology is a one-day course, which includes a lecture and a hands-on lab, and which reviews parasitic infestations of various species. The lab will include techniques for collecting and preparing specimens, microscopic evaluation of ova, and other tests commonly performed. It will be held June 8, 2002, with a registration deadline of May 24. The fee is $75 ($50 before May 10). It will be taught by Amy Baeza, CVT.
Veterinary Dentistry gives the opportunity to “brush up” on your skills, or learn the basics of dental prophylaxis and periodontal therapy. Ultrasonic and Rotosonic techniques for cats, dogs, and primates will be used. The class will be held May 31, 2002, with a registration deadline of May 17. Fee is $175 ($150 before May 1). It will be taught by Cheryl Peletz, LVT.
Advanced Dentistry Techniques is a one-day course for laboratory animal veterinarians and technicians to enhance basic knowledge and add to a set of skills by performing hands-on work with dogs, cats, and monkeys. Topics include radiographic positioning and techniques, periodontics, and surgical extraction. Also included will be dental grinding as an alternative to endodontics and extraction for disarming the canines of nonhuman primates. The class will be held June 1, 2002; registration deadline is May 17. Fee is $325 ($275 before May 1). It will be taught by R. Rosenburg, DDS, and Cheryl Peletz.
European Course in Tropical Epidemiology
The European Course in Tropical Epidemiology (ECTE) is a collaborative venture among various European institutes of tropical medicine and public health and is held annually at a different location. In 2002, from September 16 to 27, the Antwerp Institute for Tropical Medicine will organize the program in Antwerp, Belgium.
ECTE is an intensive basic course in epidemiology and medical statistics, intended for physicians, nurses, health program managers, and health administrators from tropical countries, or other persons with a professional interest in health in tropical countries. The course provides participants with basic epidemiological and statistical skills in the assessment of health problems and service priorities and in the planning of field studies. Emphasis is on methodology and practical application of epidemiological tools in developing countries, on interpretation of data, and on reporting results from operational field studies. The course fee is 1,350.00 Euros.
Detailed information and an application form can be found at <www.itg.be/ecte/>; or contact Anne Marie Trooskens, ECTE 2002 Course Secretariat, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium [+32-3-24 76 305; fax: +32-3-24 76 258; e-mail: amtrooskens@itg.be].
Research Ethics Fellowship Program
A two-year, non-degree fellowship is being offered by the Program on Ethical Issues in International Health Research in the Department of Population and International Health of the Harvard School of Public Health. The program will support four Fellows and is funded by an International Bioethics Education and Career Development grant from the Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health. This fellowship is intended for citizens of Asian countries who are involved in all areas of international health research, including medicine, anthropology, epidemiology, education, journalism, political science, and law; government, foundation, and industry officials with funding responsibilities; and members of institutional and governmental review boards. For more information, see <www.hsph.harvard.edu/bioethics>; or contact Ms. Tracy Rabin, Bldg I, Rm 1106, Dept of Population and International Health, Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02115 [617-432-3998; fax: 617-566-0365; e-mail: trabin@hsph.harvard.edu]. If you are interested in this program and are not a citizen of an Asian country, please visit the Websites of the sister programs at the Johns Hopkins University Bioethics Institute <www.med.jhu.edu/bioethics_institute/>, the Case Western Reserve University Center for Biomedical Ethics <www.cwru.edu/med/bioethics/met/maprog.html>, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine <www.aecom.yu.edu/crtp/resethics/trprog/overview.htm>, and the University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics <www.utoronto.ca/jcb/Education/mhsc_international_overview.htm>.
Behavioral Research Internship - Arizona
The Primate Foundation of Arizona (PFA) is accepting applications for its Behavioral Research Internship program. PFA is a private, non-profit corporation devoted to the preservation, propagation, and study of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). It is currently home to more than 70 socially-housed chimpanzees, and conducts behavioral research with the goal of improving captive management, environmental enrichment, and well-being.
The Behavioral Research Internship provides college students in the behavioral and biological sciences the opportunity for behavioral research experience. It includes three basic components: * an introduction to chimpanzee behavior and behavioral observation data collection; * training in chimpanzee psychological wellness and environmental enrichment; and * research support tasks such as data entry. The introduction to chimpanzee behavioral observation is the primary component of the internship and includes data collection on an assigned project, entering the data into a spreadsheet program, conducting preliminary analyses, and completion of a background literature review. At the end of the internship, the intern presents the results of his/her project to the full staff, thus acquiring presentation experience.
This is a volunteer internship, so no tuition is required and no stipend is given. Students should have completed at least two years of a four-year program (Junior level standing) in the behavioral or biological sciences. Both undergraduate and graduate students are encouraged to apply. Previous course work and/or experience in primatology/animal behavior is required for all students. Applications are accepted for three 3-month-long internships: Summer: June 15 to August 31; Fall: September 1 to November 28; and Spring: March 1 to May 30. Applications should be submitted at least six weeks in advance of the internship start date. Please submit your application as soon as possible, as we receive as many as 100 applications per position.
For further information and application materials, please send a letter, including your full name and mailing address, to: Sue Howell, Research Director, Primate Foundation of Arizona, P.O. Box 20027, Mesa, AZ 85277-0027 [e-mail: suehpfa@qwest.net].
Postdoc in Social Behavior and Vocal Communication
Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth are looking for a postdoctoral fellow who would participate in research on the social behavior and vocal communication of baboons at their field research site in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Candidates must have extensive field experience and have completed the PhD by Fall, 2002. They should be prepared to work in the field for at least one year beginning in December, 2002. Pending budgetary approval, this would be a three-year position, about half of the time in the field and half in the Biology and Psychology Departments at the University of Pennsylvania. For both scientific and practical reasons, we would be particularly interested in applicants who could work in the field as a team. For descriptions of recent research projects, see <www.bio.upenn.edu/faculty/cheney/> or <www.psych.upenn.edu/~seyfarth/>. Prospective applicants should send a CV and recent papers, and arrange for two or three letters of recommendation to be sent to Dorothy Cheney, Dept of Biology, Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6018.
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The University of Maryland, Baltimore, seeks to fill three laboratory research positions. * A Research Supervisor will be responsible for supervising the day-to-day operations of a research laboratory and providing administrative and technical support to research activities in the Obesity and Diabetes Research Center. This person supervises staff including training, scheduling, delegating work and evaluating performance; performs routine and advanced laboratory research activities such as specialized surgery, primate husbandry protocols, and surgery; administers daily laboratory operations including monitoring the budget, quality control, safety, laboratory maintenance, and ordering of supplies; compiles and analyzes data and records/reports results in order to meet program deadlines; and may prepare or assist with the preparation of manuscripts and scientific illustrations in a timely manner. The position requires comprehensive knowledge of research techniques and laboratory equipment; excellent communication, leadership and team-building skills; ability to use verifiable information for making decisions or judgments; skill in data analysis systems using Excel, Access, SAS, etc.; ability to use a consultative approach to resolve issues in area of responsibility; and participation in research design and report preparation. Other qualifications include a bachelor’s degree in biology, chemistry and/or a related field, but a master’s degree in biology or physiology is preferred; and 3-5 years experience in laboratory research, including one year of direct supervision or responsibility for training, coordinating, and monitoring the work of others.
* The Department of Physiology has an opportunity for a Research Assistant with an emphasis on studying molecular genetic factors involved with the development of diabetes, obesity, and the aging process. Duties include performing advanced molecular and genetic procedures involving cloning and sequencing. Additional duties may include analysis of gene expression using Northern blotting, Western blotting, RT-PCR, RNase protection assays, and microarray procedures. Other duties may include studying gene expression in cell culture using the above procedures or using transfection procedures to assay for reporter genes. The suitable candidate should be able to participate in the design of research studies, analyze research data using appropriate computer software applications, use bioinformatic resources on the Internet, and contribute to the preparation of technical procedures and reports. The position requires a bachelor’s degree in physiology, biology, biochemistry, or other related field with a minimum of one year of laboratory experience preferred. Experience with several of the molecular techniques described above is a plus for consideration. Experience with collecting and/or processing samples from human or nonhuman primates is desired but not required. Familiarity with Microsoft Office software is important. The ideal candidate should be able to work independently and as part of a team.
* The Department of Physiology also has an opportunity available for a Research Assistant with an emphasis on in vivo research. This person will be responsible for performing advanced laboratory research activities such as blood sampling, protocol testing, and sterile procedures. S/he will compile and may analyze research data using Excel, Access, or other computer software applications; assist with literature research, scientific illustrations, and computer graphics for publication; may perform administrative duties such as training and guiding students and/or other laboratory technicians; assist in developing procedures for studies, taking inventory, and ordering supplies; provide guidance, training and basic oversight to laboratory personnel and students; be able to lead certain research activities and perform various advanced procedures; evaluate procedures and introduce changes as necessary; be able to use routine research equipment, diagnose equipment malfunctions, and evaluate repair options; and be able to participate in the design of research studies and preparation of technical procedures and reports. A bachelor’s degree in biology, chemistry, and/or a related field and one year of experience in a laboratory are required. Education in animal science is strongly preferred. An equivalent combination of education and experience may be considered. The ideal candidates will have skill in animal care and handling as well as the ability to remain composed and function appropriately in challenging situations, follow projects or problems to resolution, and work as part of a team.
All salaries will be commensurate with education and experience. The University of Maryland offers an excellent benefits package, which includes (but is not limited to) competitive salaries, excellent health insurance plans, 22 days of vacation leave, and tuition remission at any of the 13 University System of Maryland campuses for employees and their immediate family members.
For more information, or to apply, contact Jolene Lantz, Univ. of Maryland, 737 W. Lombard St., Human Resource Services, Baltimore, MD 21201 [410-706-7171; fax: 410-706-8178; e-mail: jlantz@hr.umaryland.edu].
Lab Animal Technicians - Connecticut
A pharmaceutical company in Hartford County is seeking four lab technicians, at salaries ranging from $32,000 to $40,000 per year, depending on experience, especially experience with nonhuman primates. These technicians will provide husbandry, enrich the environment, and perform the technical aspects of study protocols, including dosing, sample collection, and data collection, on primates and rodents. The company offers benefits that include medical insurance, tuition aid, 401(k), a stock option plan, and more. At least an associate degree in any science is required, but an animal science degree is preferred. Any previous experience as a lab technician in a pharmaceutical or biotechnology company is strongly preferred. Contact Sandra Benge, KirklandSearch, 427 Bridgeport Ave, Shelton, CT 06484 [203-925-1400; fax: 203-925-1881; e-mail: bengeks@connix.com]; or see <www.kirklandsearch.com>.
Environmental Enrichment Associate - Everett, WA
Shin Nippon Biomedical Laboratory USA, Ltd., seeks an Environmental Enrichment Associate. This person will implement environmental enrichment plans for various species, including nonhuman primates. S/he will maintain good laboratory practices, prepare and distribute enrichment items, document compliance, assist with data management and record keeping, perform behavioral observations and assessments, and train animals for procedures. A BA or BS degree in a related field, with at least 1-2 years’ experience working with animals, is preferred. Experience working with primates is an asset. The salary range will be $11-13/hour.
For more information, contact Mark Honda, Shin Nippon Biomedical Laboratory USA, Ltd., 6605 Merrill Creek Pkwy, Everett, WA [425-407-0121, ext. 2148; fax: 425-407-8601; e-mail: mhonda@snblusa.com]. Please submit a cover letter and resume, describing why you are interested in this opportunity, to Human Resources at the above address [fax: 425-407-8601; e-mail: hr@snblusa.com]. Shin Nippon is an Equal Opportunity Employer.
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The Chimpanzee Conservation Center (CCC) is seeking a manager, who will be in charge of supervising local workers to ensure chimpanzee well-being. This person will be involved in every part of the project: the job includes taking care of the quarantine babies, doing weekly shopping, participating in veterinary procedures and taking the chimps for walks in the bush, as well as doing accounting and administrative jobs.
The CCC is home to 31 orphan chimpanzees, aged seven months to 18 years old. The CCC’s aim is to release most of them into the wild. Until then, the animals are being prepared to be less humanized and more “wild”.
Qualifications required include experience traveling. Speaking French and having experience with nonhuman primates would be bonuses. Lodging and meals will be provided, but no travel expenses. You will be required to commit to work for at least six months. Contact Estelle Raballand, CCC Director [e-mail: esthel@yahoo.com].
Primate Caregiver - Oklahoma
Mindy’s Memory Primate Sanctuary is seeking an experienced live-in Primate Caregiver to assist the Director with all facets of animal care and shelter management. This job is unpaid, but a furnished efficiency apartment and utilities are provided.
The Caregiver will work with a variety of monkey species, including herpes-B-positive macaques. Responsibilities will include diet preparation and feeding, enclosure and grounds cleaning and maintenance, careful animal observation and record keeping, assisting in medical procedures, and providing daily enrichment. The position will also include public relations, fundraising, training and supervision of volunteers, and assistance with various administrative tasks, as needed. The Caregiver will be trained in all aspects of running a primate shelter and may be called upon to oversee operations on occasion.
The successful applicant will be a mature, highly motivated, caring self-starter with a strong knowledge of primatology and several years’ experience in primate care, including working in biohazardous conditions. This person should * possess a genuine love for animals and an enthusiasm for contributing to their daily well-being; * be able to learn the daily routine and the normal condition and behavior of each monkey quickly; * have good observational and organizational skills, as well as the ability and willingness to assume increasing responsibility; * be unafraid of hard work, and able to work outdoors under any weather conditions, performing any necessary task, often with very little help. This person, after a training period, should be able to assess the daily needs of the monkeys and the facility and act independently, supervising the work of volunteers while maintaining a work schedule, and displaying professionalism in all dealings with the public. Some knowledge of computers is preferred.
Please send resume, letter of interest, and work and personal references to: Mindy’s Memory Primate Sanctuary, P.O. Box 134, Newcastle, OK 73065 [e-mail: mindysmem@aol.com]. All references will be checked. A negative TB test is required. For more information on the sanctuary see <www.mindysmem.org>.
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LAMA’s Annual Meeting and Educational Seminar will be held May 1-3, 2002, in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, sponsored by the Laboratory Animal Management Association and the Allied Trades Association. The title of the meeting is “Earth, Wind and Fire: Avoiding Blood, Sweat and Tears”, and it will focus on disaster planning. For information, contact Jim Manke, Executive Director, LAMA, 7300 Metro Blvd #585, Edina, MN 55439 [952-250-6201].
A New York Regional Primatology Colloquium will be held May 16 at the CUNY Graduate Center, Room C204, 365 Fifth Ave (34-35 Sts), New York City, sponsored by the New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology. Dr. Sylvia Atsalis, of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, will discuss “Feeding, Fattening and Sex in the Brown Mouse Lemur”. Contact: Eric Delson [212-769-5992; e-mail: delson@amnh.org].
A Scientists Center for Animal Welfare Conference: Improving Research Animal Well-being, will be held May 16-17, 2002, in Baltimore, Maryland. Some of the subjects to be discussed will be: Principles of enrichment; Assessment for enrichment: What works where? Species specific enrichment methods; Animal training as enrichment; and Emerging issues in enrichment. For full program, registration, and accommodation information, see <www.scaw.com> or contact SCAW at 7833 Walker Dr., Suite 410, Greenbelt, MD 20770 [301-345-3500; fax: 301-345-3503; e-mail: info@scaw.com].
A meeting on Encroachment on Wildlife Ecosystems: New and Re-Emerging Viral Epidemics will be held June 9-11, 2002, at the Artis Zoological Gardens, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. The meeting will focus on the consequences of altering ecosystems, with effects on established virus-host balances, leading to new and re-emerging diseases. It is the aim of the organizers to have experts on wildlife and zoo animal virology discuss the consequences of trans-species transmission to and from wildlife, domestic animals, and human populations. The meeting will be an informal opportunity to exchange experience and expertise in the monitoring, diagnosis, prevention (including wildlife vaccination), and control of outbreaks. Contact Ms. Jeanette Schouw, Dept of Virology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, P.O. Box 3306, 2280 GH Rijswijk, The Netherlands [e-mail: wildlife@bprc.nl]; or see <www.wildlife2002.nl>.
The First European Conference on Behavioural Biology will be held July 31 to August 4, 2002, in Muenster, Germany. This will be a joint meeting of the European Societies for Behavioural Biology, including the Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour, Ethologische Gesellschaft, Nederlandse Vereniging voor Gedragsbiologie, Sociedade Portuguesa de Etologia, Société Française pour l’Étude du Comportement Animal, Groupement de Recherche en Ecologie Comportementale, Societa Italiana di Etologia, and the Sociedad Española de Etología, which have agreed to begin a tradition of biannual joint meetings. The broad theme is “Conflict and Resolution”. For information, contact Dr. Norbert Sachser, Inst. für Neuro- und Verhaltensbiologie, Abt. für Verhaltensbiologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Badestraße 9, D-48149 Münster [0251-83 23884; Fax: 0251-83 23896; e-mail: sachser@uni-muenster.de]; or see <www.behaviour2002.de/index.html>.
The Xth Congresso Brasileiro de Primatologia will be held August 26-30, 2002, at the Universidade Federal do Pará, Belem, hosted by the Sociedade Brasileira de Primatologia. For more information, contact Stephen Ferrari, Depto de Genética, Univ. Federal do Pará, Campus do Guamá, Caixa Postal 8607, 66075-150 Belém, Pará, Brazil [e-mail: ferrari@ufpa.br].
The 4th International Symposium on Physiology and Behavior of Zoo Animals will be held in Berlin September 29 to October 2, 2002. Our aim is to bring together scientists from various disciplines working with free-ranging and captive animals to encourage an exchange of ideas. Plenary speakers include Donald Broom, Terry Burke, Andrew Kitchener, and Bill Sutherland. The main topics of the symposium will be reproductive biology, stress and disturbance, behavioral science, wildlife conservation, evolutionary genetics, and nutrition and digestive physiology. For more information, see <www.IZW-Berlin.de>.
The European Marmoset Research Group (EMRG) 2002 Meeting will be held October 14-16, 2002, Paris, France. Topics will include biomedical, clinical, basic biological, and pharmaceutical research in marmosets and tamarins; in addition there will be workshops and discussion groups dealing with new developments in husbandry, handling, and research techniques. Further information will be available in the next EMRG newsletter. To receive the newsletter, contact David Abbott, Dept of Ob/Gyn, Physiological EthologyResources Available
U.K. Research Defence Society PublicationsAddenda to the Directory of Graduate Programs in Primatology and Primate Research
North Carolina
PROGRAM NAME: Graduate Study in Biological Anthropology and Anatomy.
FACULTY AND THEIR SPECIALTIES: Matt Cartmill (anthropoid and primate origins, history of ideas about animal consciousness); Kenneth E. Glander (ecology and social organization); William L. Hylander (functional and evolutionary morphology of the masticatory apparatus); Richard F. Kay (anthropoid phylogeny, based especially on cranial and dental anatomy, through paleontological field research); Theresa R. Pope (interrelationship between social organization, behavioral ecology, and genetic structure of primate populations); Elwyn L. Simons (primate paleontology); Kathleen K. Smith (vertebrate evolutionary morphology); John W. Terborgh (tropical forest ecology); Carel P. van Schaik (socioecology); Steven Churchill (functional morphology of upper limb bones in later stages of human evolution, Neanderthals); V. Louise Roth (evolutionary modification of growth and development in mammals); Christine Drea (social behavior, social learning, and reproductive endocrinology); Diane Brockman (reproductive ecology and endocrinology); Leslie Digby (female strategies and social organization).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION: Dept. of Biological Anthropology and Anatomy, Director of Graduate Studies, 08 Biological Sciences Bldg, Box 90383, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708.
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION: MSc in Early Hominid Studies. An intensive, interdisciplinary course over one year provides a broadly based theoretical and practical understanding of our own origins and biology and that of our closest relatives within the larger context of climatic change and the evolution of life. It provides an excellent basis for further research in the field. Graduates with a first degree in a variety of arts and sciences subjects may enroll.
FACULTY AND THEIR SPECIALTIES: Robin Crompton (primate ecology, behavior, and evolution); Robin Dunbar (primate social behavior and evolution); Michael Günther (functional morphology and biomechanics); John Gowlett (paleolithic archaeology; early hominid sites; radiocarbon dating); Alf Latham (geochronology and geoarchaeology); Gabriele Macho (early hominid evolution; gnathic and dental evolution, function, and development); John Shaw (paleomagnetism); Anthony Sinclair (archaeological theory; late paleolithic).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION: Gabriele Macho, Hominid Palaeontology Research Group, Dept of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, Univ. of Liverpool, P.O. Box 147, Liverpool L69 3BX, England [e-mail: gama1@liverpool.ac.uk]. Grants Available
NIAMS Small Grant Program for New InvestigatorsInformation Requested or Available
Bibliography of Refinement and Enrichment UpdateResearch and Educational Opportunities
Delhi Continuing Education CoursesPositions Available
Research Positions - MarylandVolunteer Opportunities
Manager - Guinea (West Africa) Meeting Announcements
The 22nd Annual Anthropology Symposium, hosted by the Anthropology Students Association at California State University Fullerton, the Department of Anthropology, and the Southern California Primate Research Forum, will be held April 27, 2002, at the Fullerton campus. The theme will be “Production and Reproduction: The Evolution of Primate and Human Life Histories”. Speakers will be J. Bock, K. Hawkes, S. B. Hrdy, S. Johnson, H. Kaplan, W. C. McGrew, and C. B. Stanford. For more information contact Nicole Kanbara, A.S.A. President [e-mail: symposium@fullerton.edu]; or visit <anthro.fullerton.edu/symposium>.
