History of the World in 100 Objects

Assignment Due Thursday March 11 at midnight

http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/explorerflash/#

The curator of the British Museum has chosen to do a podcast series with the BBC that traces the history of the world through 100 objects chosen from the museum's collection. Explore the website and choose one object, find the podcast (30 or so have been recorded and an be found either on the website or on iTunes), listen to it and write a response. Give a brief summary of the object and why it is important and then give your general reaction to the piece.

Please only POST on this site, DO NOT EDIT!!!!

Posted at Mar 10/2010 02:55PM:
Sarah Champagne: I looked up the Gold Coin of Croesus. This was significant because it was the first culture to create a coin as we know it today with a specific weight and size and made out of pure gold. It was created by the King, Croesus, of Lydia (now western Turkey). Another sign of guarantee was the stamp that could be found on the coin as well as testing its streak color. Croesus is a common symbol of ultimate wealth. He was a new power who was fabulously rich during his reign. There is a phrase "as rich as Croesus". These coins were created around 550 BC. The had a lion, a sign of royalty, as the stamp on the coin. This was the first controlled unit of trade. It was a trusted coin and therefore it gave people financial power and reliability throughout other countries. It was the first reliable currency.

Posted at Mar 10/2010 03:49PM:
Brittany Dunn:Early writing tablet- This Mesopotamian tablet from around 3100-3000 BC is a small clay tablet covered with cuneiform, an early style of writing using drawings to depict certain items. This specific tablet has drawings indicating the rationing of beer used as payment for work done in the city of Ur. This tablet is not only important because it depicts one of the earliest forms of writing, but also because it offers insight into the beginnings of city and state organization. The importance of writing as a form of record keeping and creating new things is still prevalent in the modern world, and this tablet offers an example of the beginning of this significance. It also illustrates the ways that writing can help to create order in a community and allow for social control, as it can be used to keep track of things such as the economy, etc. I thought the piece was very interesting because of the way that it can be interpreted, both based on the form of writing and the content of the writing. This artifact is truly significant to present knowledge of early civilizations, such as Mesopotamia. It also provides insight into the development of human society since then.

Posted at Mar 10/2010 07:13PM:
Catherine McManus: Chinese Zhou ritual vessel, c. 1050 BC. This large bronze bowl was used in Ancient China in ceremonial banquets for the dead. The Chinese believed that their deceased ancestors could influence the world of the living. By frequently presenting the dead with food and wine, they hoped to earn their ancestors' favor. Although this kind of artifact and its associated rituals and beliefs carried through a long period of Chinese history, this particular vessel dates to the Zhou dynasty, the longest dynasty in Chinese history. The engraving on the bottom of the bowl's interior helps to date the object; it was made for a warrior who fought in a battle between the Shang (the previous dynasty) and the Zhou. The bronze engraving is what made me find this object particularly intriguing; many other historical records of the time period were written on organic materials - parchment, for example - and have since decomposed. Thus an object such as this is invaluable not only in its fine craftsmanship, but also in the historical data it provides.

Posted at Mar 10/2010 08:38PM:
aiarocci: Olmec stone mask, c. 900-400BC. This is a small, 13cm tall, 11.3cm wide, green colored stone mask. The stone type is jadeite, which is a very dense stone, therefore hard stone to work with. It would have been made by abrasion and scratching followed by polishing. The Olmec people that inhabited the southern rainforest of present day Mexico made this stone mask. This often forgotten society was just as complex as the Egyptians and was technologically advanced for its time, creating stepped-temples, an astrological calendar and a system of writing. The markings on the face of the mask are the earliest known glyphs in America. The Olmec civilization lasted from about 1400 to 400B.C. This society is known as the mother culture of South America. The word Olmec means ‘people from the rubber country.’ Archaeologists think that this mask was not used on the face, but was worn as a pendant. They assume it was either of a deity, like a rain god or a king because of the ear and facial piercings, and tattoo marks on the face. The tattoos or perhaps scars are possibly symbolic of the cultural in location and their centrality and directions. The holes in the mask perhaps originally had feather or beads or plugs in them. There is lots of evidence of facial piercings in plugs in Olmec art, but because of the rainforest environment, no bodies have survived. Also, it is important to note that the mouth is turned down and the face has an infant like quality. The Olmec culture is important in modern Mexican identity because it was a very complex society and gives Mexicans a sense of pride and historical continuity in their native heritage. I was drawn to this mask because there is something very mysterious and beautiful about the facial expression and the texture and color of the stone. I think it is a striking piece of art and a beautiful testament to the complexity of the Olmec civilization.

Posted at Mar 10/2010 08:47PM:
Sean Yancey: Standard of Ur, c. 2500 BCE. This is a wooden box inlaid with lapis lazuli, red stone, and shell. Found in Ur, perhaps the most famous of the early Mesopotamian cities by the archaeologist Leonard Wooley in the 1920s, the Standard of Ur is one of the most impressive finds in the Tombs of Ur. The box has two sides, one of peace and the other of war. About the size of a small briefcase, the modern viewer gains an insight to the nature of the city hierarchy that was created for or because of the first wave of urbanization. The various registers show the receiving of taxes and the stratification of society leading up to the priests and king. The king himself is shown larger than any of the other people to demonstrate his importance. The other side shows the Sumerian Army in action, as if to show (as the podcast suggests) that a flourishing economy needs an army to defend it. Archaeologists still don't know the exact function of the Standard of Ur and guesses range from box to a part of a musical instrument. I found it personally striking that the Sumerians were participants in a global trade network that aquired goods from Afghanistan, India, and the Gulf. I liked the relation that the commentator made regarding Marx, one certainly can look at the Standard of Ur and immediately look into a new class system and struggle as a result of the growth of populations and manufacturing. In a way I feel that society and civilization didn't really change much until the Industrial Revolution, and even then our base nature seems to have mostly stayed consistent.

Posted at Mar 10/2010 09:29PM:
Kelly Lougheed: The Swimming Reindeer, a mammoth tusk carving from the last Ice Age around 10,000 BC, stands out not only for its age, but also its evidence of changes in the function of the human brain. Because the relic serves no practical purpose, scholars have considered it proof that by the time of the object's creation, the human brain had developed enough sophistication to graduate from making tools to making art, and creating representations of life around them. One scholar suggests that this artifact evinces how the brain had perhaps began to combine different ways thinking--for instance, the area that processed nature could now combine with the area of the brain in charge of creation. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, also thought that the object carried religious associations. He perceived in the artifact an ancient desire to "be at home in the world," which he equated to the origin of religion. I was intrigued by the suggestion that imagination and creativity, as embodied by the Swimming Reindeer, distinguish modern humans. Usually we consider technology to be the herald of progress, but the creativity demonstrated by the Swimming Reindeer expands our minds beyond the mere practical and opens the doors to innovation.

Posted at Mar 10/2010 10:45PM:
Do Hyun Kim: Chinese Bronze Bell – This bell was discovered in Zhiang Zi Providence, and it is dated to be approximately 2500 years old. When the bell was created, there was disarray in China with on-going debates about what a society should be like. Confucius believed that music creates harmony human can relate and bells ultimately bring better societies. He also believed that music plays a crucial role in education and teaching everyone his or her place in the world. In addition, each bell is unique in that no two bells sound alike. Some have huge resonance and some have a hard sound. This characteristic of bells signifies diversity and harmony in the Chinese society. The ancient methods of playing bells have been lost in China but fortunately preserved in the neighboring country, Korea. The Korean court music, which originated in the 12th century, gives us an idea as to what music with bells and drums were like thousands of years ago. When I was little, my parents took me to historical landmarks in Korea, where they played the music. From what I can recall, the music created a very positive and jubilant atmosphere in which my mind was at ease.

Posted at Mar 10/2010 10:49PM:
Megan Hochstrasser: Olmec stone mask, c. 900-400 BC. This green mask, probably worn originally as a necklace, is about 13 by 11 centimeters and made of a stone called jadeite. The mouth is turned down and there are deliberate scratches the stone in places. The ears have holes in them and the mask may have once had decorative piercings. On either side of the mouth are Olmec glyphs, the earliest known writing in America. The Olmecs were the earliest known Central American civilization, and the collapse of their society is still not well understood. The mask features etchings resembling some sort of compass, suggesting that the Olmecs saw their culture as the “center” of the world. The face itself probably depicts a god, king, or some other person of importance. The mask is an example of the many stone masks the Olmecs produced, but it’s important due to its great condition and the fact that not many other artifacts featuring Olmec glyphs have survived over the years.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 11:39AM:
Zoe Wheeler: Oxus Chariot Model, 5th-4th C., BCE - This golden chariot was found in Central Asia and is so small it fits in the palm of one's hand. It depicts a Persian leader being ferried in a chariot and is emblematic of the reasons why the Persian Empire was so successful: namely, that it allowed for the intermingling of religions and languages; the Egyptian god Bes can be seeing at the front of the Chariot. Furthermore, the Chariot hints at the aforementioned success within itself: just the fact that roads were well-maintained enough to allow for such transportation methods speaks to the empire's stability and wealth. The fact that the passenger is not flanked by any guards suggests the Persian Empire was incredibly secure as well. Thus, this one tiny object, speaks volumes about the state of the Persian Empire at the time of its creation.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 12:18PM:
Bridget Carroll:Mold Gold Cape—discovered in 1833 by a group of workmen in a village near Mold in North Wales. The gold cape, also described as a “short poncho,” was found wrapped around a skeleton amongst other burial objects. The workmen divided the gold cape into shares and recklessly discarded the rest of the burial site. Three years later, the British Museum bought the largest share of the cape from the farmer. It took 100 years after that to gather the rest of the divided cape. The cape was put back together in the 1960s and measured about 1.5 feet wide and one foot long. The cape was complex and luxurious signifying skilled work. The podcast describes it as the “cartier and tiffanys of the time.” The complexity of it suggests that I comes from great wealth and prestige and tells us the societies in Britain were extremely sophisticated in crafts and social structures. It also makes one wonder who was wearing the cape? Considering the size of the cape the archaeologists concluded it belongs to a woman or teenager. This idea challenges the perception of age and responsibility of people in Britain at this time. If it was a teenager, the cape could signify a leadership role. In conclusion, the archaeologists may never know because the context of the site, such as the skeleton that was wearing the cape, was discarded because of the lack of financial value. I think this object is cool because of its implications of the skilled goldsmith during this period of time. I think it is also important that they could have discovered more information had the workmen not destroyed the site.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 01:12PM:
Rachel Schwartz: Found in modern-day Iraq, the Flood Tablet (c. 7th century BCE) bears the epic story of Gilgamesh, relating an elaborate plan of the gods to destroy the world by flood. The discovery of the meaning behind the cryptic text, however, excited not only its original translator, George Smith (so much so that he even felt it necessary to disrobe himself publically), but also a 19th century society that was very well informed on biblical matters. This particular clay writing-tablet carries two levels of significance, providing tremendous insight into the beginnings of literature and, perhaps more controversially, beckoning the question of the role of scripture and its relationship to truth. With regard to the first point, the story of Gilgamesh indeed possesses all the literary elements that constitute an epic story. Moreover, the tablet marks the shift away from using written language strictly for bureaucratic, record-keeping purposes in the Middle East. Unlike their oral counterparts, written stories like that of the Tablet assume a more static nature, and gain the capacity to be translated and transferred to other cultures. Thus, in its role as the first work of world literature, the story of Gilgamesh changed the nature of writing, and helped dissolve intercultural barriers. The Flood Tablet also questions the validity of the biblical narrative of Noah and the ark—a story that Gilgamesh not only directly parallels, but also predates by approximately 400 years. Perhaps, then, the Tablet proves that the Bible does not consist of a series of privileged revelations but, rather, merely a collection of legends that are shared amongst the entirety of the Middle East. Although I personally allow this to be a workable possibility, I think it also possible that the Tablet proves the exact opposite claim—that is, it affirms the factual validity of the Bible, by introducing outside evidence that the events described in the Bible did, indeed, occur. Thus, although I believe this artifact to be immensely important to understanding the true nature of the Bible, exactly what it is telling us is ambiguous. It is one piece of a very large puzzle.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 01:55PM:
Sidney Jacobs: Early writing tablet: This tablet is a piece of clay that holds some of the earliest writings discovered in the world. It is from over 5,000 years ago, and was found in what is today Southern Iraq, but reveals information about a Mesopotamian city. It is called “cuneiform” because of its wedged shape. It contains records of the daily beer rations of the workers. The beer is portrayed as an upright jar with a pointed base, and the symbol for ration is a human head eating form a porridge bowl. The tablet also contains round and semicircular imprints that represent the measurements. A cut reed produced all the signs. This tablet is so important because it symbolizes the birth of bureaucracy and the early beginnings of a state. Writing was first developed, and used when things could not be remembered by the people. Leaders of the state started to realize that having written records was a something necessary when trying to control a large population, so information began to be recorded on tablets like this. This tablet shows the Mesopotamian economy in its first stages. They lacked a currency, and the tablet shows that beer is what was used instead. It is clear from the tablet that beer, their staple drink, was used as a form of money.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 01:56PM:
kawagner: Maya Maize God Statue Hun Hunahpu, 700 AD. This statue, found in modern-day Honduras, is of the Mayan God of Maize, the main source of food for the civilization of the era. The statue originally stood in a high-step temple along with other statues of Gods that the Mayan worshipped, representing serene power; there were eight total - four women and four men - and all were commissioned by the Mayan leader of the time to be the center of worship. This Maize God is an example in an era when new foods were being discovered and harvested by civilizations who, in turn, created new gods to worhsip to for their discovery. It represents the divine role of food in early argicultural groups; for the Middle East it was wheat and barley, for China it was milet and rice, for Africa it was sorghum, and for South and Central America it became maize. According to Mayan mythology, the Maize God was decapitated at the end of every harvest and reborn during replanting, ensuring the coming of the seasons. Why did the Mayans choose maize? At the time it was the most sustainable and versitile edible plant of the region (and animals were not easily domesticated). Maize was considered the divine material from which the Mayan ancestors were made. It still holds high importance in modern life, being a class unifier because everyone in that region continues to eat maize. The recent use of maize as a biofuel has triggered much conflict because some still consider maize to be divine, making its use as car-fuel rather than sustenance or worship a considerable problem.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 03:43PM:
Mike Kelley: Chinese Bronze Bell -- this item is about 2,500 years old, but the ideas carried with it and all bells thrived for even longer. Steeped in the history of the bell is the philosophy of Confucius itself; not only did Confucius favor music as a symbol of harmony, but he also drew a parallel between the concert of bells and the community of virtuous people in a society. Each bell has its own sound, just as each member has its own position in society and harmony is best reached when each part works in its own way and resonate together. But in a way contrary to Confucianism, many sets of bells were owned by warlords or other members of importance and bells had to be sounded before an attack, otherwise it would be dishonorable. Bells often came in sets of 9 or 14 and displayed wealth and status in the owner, as they were expensive to buy and to hire people to play. The most interesting part of the bells of this time are their uniformity; each bell was a standard weight or volume and thus could be used for weighing or measuring amounts. Even today, bells hold importance and were even rung at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, and the philosophical idea of relating bells to virtuous members of society is still as popular as ever.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 04:47PM:
Misa Scharfen: Jomon Pot 15 x 17 cm-- "if mealtimes are a microcosmical society, then pots are the very glue that holds it together"-- "Jomon" means cord patterned pot, which all of the Jomon clay pots throughout time possessed. It is possible to accurately identify styles and time period based on the coils of Jomon pots. From the coils, and other dating methods, this particular pot is thought to be from around 5000 BC. Despite the unimpressive quality of the pot, it is the time period in which they are from that makes these Jomon pots important. The oldest Jomon pot dates from about 16,500 years ago, thus making them the first ancient culture to make pots. Most pot making societies are associated with sedentary villages which are agriculturally based. While the Jomon were sedentary, they were a hunter-gatherer society not agricultural. This is unusual because before studying the Jomon, most archaeologists believed that it was the advent of agriculture which led to sedentary villages and pot making. The reason the Jomon were able to sustain their sedentary, hunter-gatherer lifestyle was due to the bountifulness of the land and sea in northern Japan. Also notable is that from studying the carbonized remains in the pots, scientists can tell that the advent of the pot changed the dietary habits of the Jomon, as some foods, like acorns or certain shellfish, can only be eaten when boiled. Because of this new ability, the Jomon villages were the birthplace of soups and stews. However, techniques in pot making did not spread from Japan to the rest of the world; they were instead developed simultaneously. The first pots found in Africa date to a few thousand years after pots were first made in Japan. Also interesting about this Jomon pot is the gold leaf lacquer on the inside, put in during the 17th-19th century by a noble who made it into a water pot for tea ceremonies. This adaptation of the Jomon pot is an example of "continuity through change".

Posted at Mar 11/2010 06:43PM:
scout: I looked at the death masks of Worcester Criminals. I was intrigued by these objects because of their scientific and cultural significance. Created in the 1800s, they were cast from the faces of criminals who were hanged at the Worcestershire prison. The bodies of the deceased prisoners were studied by medical students. The masks were made so that scientists could phrenological studies to see if there was any correlation between cranial anatomy and being a murder. The Victorians were reputability obsessed with a number of morbid topics, notably horrific, gruesome deaths and insanity, which puts context to the creation of these masks. It is also interesting to note that historically death masks ad been made of important figures (such as Ludwig van Beethoven and Napoleon Bonaparte) in order to immortalize them; so these artifacts are important in that they show a divergence from this kind of attitude. Today many cultures still show an interest in macabre and disturbing subjects, watching the surgery channels and shows on drug addicts such as Intervention and Celebrity rehab. This artifact shows our history at a time when respect for death and the dead was going through a period of extreme transition.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 06:54PM:
Michael Johnson: The Maya Maize God statue dates back to around 700 A.D. The over 1300 year-old stone statue was found in Honduras, in a region that was once the ancient Mayan city of Copan. The statue was carved out of limestone using a stone chisel and a bustled hammer. The statue has meditative features with large symmetrical features, closed eyes and parted lips. The arms of the statue are bent with outward facing palms. Atop the Maize god's head sits an enormous headdress, shaped like a stylized corn cob. Flowing from the headdress is hair that looks like the silky strands that line the cob. The Maize god has been worshiped for thousands of years. The statue was one of 8 mythological beings (four men and four women), who were said to be the ancestors of all Mayan people. The Mayans believe they are made of maize and have a deep spiritual connection with the crop. To them, maize represents the agricultural cycle as well as the cycle of life and death. Maize is revered over meat and other crops by the Mayans because it was able to be grown anywhere they settled. The crop also grew taller and became more abundant the more it was harvested. In addition, maize provided rapid energy yet, especially in early years, the crop was challenging to turn into an edible form. The Mayans said the gods wanted them to sacrifice for their food. As the use of maize for fuel increases, the Mayans are worried that the spirituality of the crop is being tarnished. It was mentioned in the podcast that many cultures throughout history have worshipped food for their similarities to the cycle of life and death and for their ability to continually provide for the people every season. I found it interesting that, in order to better relate to the life-giving qualities of maize, the Mayans constructed a statue that personifies the crop itself and represented its power and omnipotence through its features and design.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 07:43PM:
Innessa Colaiacovo: I listened to the podcast about the Gold Coin of Croesus. Croesus was the King of Lydia (in modern-day Turkey) and the coin is from approximately 550 BCE which was in the middle of his reign. I chose this object because it draws attention to the use of money as a historical development which is something we take for granted because it is so integral to modern society. The podcast points out that the use of coinage as a means of storing value was necessitated by the development of larger society in which you can no longer on knowing and trusting everyone you trade with. Previously, testing the actual metallic content of coins was a time-consuming process. The Lydians came up with the idea of the state minting coins to ensure standard quality, size and purity. Images were guarantees of quality and indications of size; later coins carried dates and thus the ruler had responsibility for the authenticity of the coins. This reliability made Lydia a center for commerce because the coins were so sought after. I liked that this item was featured in the “History of the World” Series because it tied directly to an idea that is relevant across cultures and societies and fundamental to society today.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 08:06PM:
Daniel Copperman: The gold coin of Croesus dates back to around 550 B.C.E. Croesus was king of Lydia (now, western Turkey) during a period of change, especially in commerce. When commerce had been primarily local, members of the community could barter and trade with each other based on their skills and products. As trading became more international at this time, there was a need for a currency of exchange. There had been some exchange using precious metals before this and Egypt had adopted a system of weights of valued metals as mediums of exchange. But Croesus figured out how to separate silver and gold and create coins of guaranteed purity and weight that the state minted. The coins had stamps on them and different sizes had different values. In this way, the coins had reliable value and could be used in a way that encouraged spending. Through King Croesus’ forward thinking, he became the first king with extreme wealth. The coins created wealth and therefore as well, power and influence. Although Croesus and Lydia were taken over by the Persian King Cyrus, Croesus’ excellent understanding of markets, money and wealth led him to be appointed Cyrus’ financial advisor, which helped spread Croesus’ coins throughout the trade routes of the Mediterranean and Asia. They changed the world’s conception of payment. Once payment was made in a transaction by coins, there was a separation of the value of the items bought and sold. One who had enough coins, could buy more of anything. Croesus was ahead of his time and his thinking about commerce is credited with being the beginning of modern thinking in this area.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 08:11PM:
Susana Ortega: The Sphinx of Taharqo is made of stone in 680 B.C. and discovered in Northern Sudan. Many people think that the Nile River belongs to Egypt but it actually belongs to nine other African countries, which most of the Nile is located in Sudan. Egypt was the stronger one of the two but in 728 B.C. Kush found themselves the one in control. The Sphinx of Taharqo is very well preserved and clearly shows the face of a black pharaoh. It is important because it shows the combination of Kush and Egypt. The writings show how he was the fourth ruler of the combined two. Taharqo was important because he adopted Egyptian traditions like worshipping Amun, and restoring Egyptian temples, which this method worked. This combination of the two lands was brief and didn't last no more than 150 years. I was surprised to hear that there are confrontations with the Nile River between Egypt and Sudan. It doesn't make sense to me how Egypt claims Nile when clearly Sudan properly owns most of the Nile.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 08:42PM:
Connor Barnhart: "The Correct Method of Reckoning for Grasping the Meaning of Things and Knowing Everything, Obscurities, and All Secrets" -- such an ostentatious title would seem to belong in the self-help or metaphysical section of a local bookstore rather than adorning an ancient artifact. However, that is just how the c. 1500 BCE Rhind Mathematical Papyrus begins and the text lives up to its own self-importance: containing 84 worked examples of practical math problems that a civil servant or foreman from the period might encounter, the papyrus represents the largest surviving mathematical text from anywhere in the ancient world. The papyrus was purchased in Luxor by an Aberdeen Lawyer, Alexander Rhind, though the primary context of the text is unknown; archaeologists may speculate, however, that it likely was a burial artifact--given that the dry, dark environment of a tomb would be ideal for preserving the organic papyrus in its current state. The text is significant as a primary source of historical information on the state of Ancient Egyptian numeracy and represents the early beginnings of mathematical abstraction, providing generalizable approaches to specific practical problems. The text also provides a glimpse into the daily life and trials faced by a well-educated, wealthy member of Egyptian society under the Pharaohs. Examples include such practical problems as calculating the slope of a pyramid and the proper rationing of food for birds and workers. The papyrus may not be representative of the true state of Ancient Egyptian higher maths, but it nonetheless represents one of the few surviving primary source documents available on which we may base our conclusions.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 08:42PM:
Elizabeth Vasily: The Minoan Bull is over 3,500 years old and was discovered in Crete relating to the ancient city of Cnossus (Κνωσος). This small bronze statue, depicting a man leaping over a bull grabbing it by the horns, is a very important artifact from the Bronze Age. It links back to the Minoan civilization, which is a very mysterious civilization that we have yet to fully understand. This bull statue is very helpful in understanding the Minoan culture, because it demonstrates that bulls were of great social and religious significance. This statue is suspected to have been used in caves or sanctuaries for religious sacrifice. This also correlates to the story of King Minos and the Minotaur, a story of man vs. beast that has been written about for ages. I found this piece extremely interesting because, as a Classics major, I have read stories and references to Minotaur and King Minos in many Latin and Ancient Greek texts. The combination archaeological objects and classical texts allows us to weave together various facts, stories, and images, in order to understand more about these amazing ancient cultures.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 08:50PM:
Sarah Ebert: Rhind Mathematical Papyrus—This Egyptian papyrus, originally 17 feet long discovered in Thebes, Egypt, dates back to around 1550 BC. It is unknown where the papyrus was precisely found; however, many assume that it was in a tomb because of the high degree of preservation. This text is named after Alexander Rhind, a lawyer who purchased it in Luxor, Egypt in the 1850s. It is one of the earliest and largest mathematical texts from anywhere in the ancient world. On this papyrus are 84 mathematical problems, written in administrative shorthand, ranging from how to divide rations among a workforce to how much grain is required to fatten a free-range goose compared to a caged goose. Overall, the calculations presented on this papyrus address difficulties or scenarios that may arise in daily life. Fittingly, this papyrus served as a study guide for those wishing to pass the civil service exam in order to have an administrative career. Thus, this text is important because it presents the challenges of daily life and how those challenges were met by the Egyptian administration and infrastructure.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 08:52PM:
Andrea Vela: The Maya maize god statue is an approximately 1300 year old limestone statue from an ancient Maya city and religious center in Honduras. Its head and body are disproportionate, meaning that they were probably joined together from two separate original pieces. The main importance of this statue is that it represents the importance of the development of agriculture after the last Ice Age. Cultures such as the Mayans began to worship new deities around this time due to their different relationship with the world around them. Food began to take on a divine role due to their newfound ability to grow and harvest. Thus, many of these deities were linked to the crops particular to the region in which these civilizations lived. In Central America and Mexico, the home of the Maya, maize was a very important crop. The myth attributed to the Maya maize god corresponds to the agricultural season and methods used to prepare maize for eating. Maize was so important to the Maya that they actually believed their ancestors were made by the gods from a maize paste. I found this piece and its history to be particularly interesting because maize continues to be a dietary staple in Central America and Mexico today. Being of Mexican descent, I know how deeply entrenched food is in my culture, and now I have a better understanding of why that is.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 09:33PM:
Hiu Wai: This ivory label of King Den, one of the earliest pharaohs in Ancient Egypt, was found attached to his royal sandals. It is a piece of delicate artifact that represents pervasive royal and cosmic ideologies in Ancient Egypt. The label was made out of a hippo’s tusk and sized 1.5 square inches only. The craftsman apparently scratched into the ivory and rubbed resin onto it, creating a distinct black against cream appearance. The King is seen as a larger figure mounting over a cowering enemy, who was about to be smitten to his doom. Early hieroglyphics inscription is found in between the two figures and on the right of the label, which reads ‘they shall not exist’ and ‘the first occasion of smiting of the east’ respectively. These writings convey that Ancient Egyptian kings lived up to the notion of subduing chaos and exerting military prowess to those whom they deemed inferior. It was also interpreted that such artistic scenes suggest warfare as means to consolidate nationhood and to show the king’s supremacy. I like the idea of how scholars paralleled this label to a modern ID card used by common people, and the fact that it was found on such a personal item of the king was also fascinating. With this tiny object in hand, it is intriguing to discover such powerful iconography that it is able to depict.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 09:35PM:
Haley Strausser: The swimming reindeer is a sculpture carved onto a mammoth tusk. At the thinner tip of the tusk there is a smaller female reindeer with a larger male reindeer behind her. This artifact dates back to about 10,000 BC and was made during the last Ice Age. It was found by a river in Central France. The swimming reindeer are significant because they symbolize an important change in the way the human brain worked; rather than merely making things such as tools that were necessary, humans began to create objects about exploring the order and the patterns they see in the natural world. In other words, the swimming reindeer show one of the first examples of art created by humans. Around 100,000 years ago different parts of the brain began making connections with each other, and this is an important factor in the creation of this art.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 09:51PM:
Meaghan Carroll:I chose the Parthenon Sculpture: Centaur and Lapith, which is a sculpture from Athens Greece from about 440 B.C. of a half-man, half-horse rearing over a dead body (Lapiths were humans from northern Greece, while centaurs were part-man, part-horse to represent the dual aspect of their nature: they were capable of being both civilized and savage). This sculpture has generated huge controversy around the world because it has not been returned to Greece - it remains in London. Although it shows centaurs attacking the lapiths, the lapiths were victorious over the centaurs in battle. The sculpture focuses on human suffering which epitomizes the intensity of Greek art – it shows the centaurs dehumanizing their enemy. It seems likely that this sculpture with its mythical scene of battle between Greek and Centaur makes symbolic reference to the life and death struggle of Athens against the Persian, barbarian, invader. The Greeks felt strongly of their own identity and regarded the Persians as barbarians like the Centaurs. The Parthenon was completed in 432 B.C. where the Persians destroyed an earlier unfinished temple. It is unclear as to why it is still located in London rather than in Greece. I think it is interesting that this sculpture can be interpreted as art but also can carry such a political background.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 10:15PM:
Viviana Martinez: Egyptian Painted Pottery Cattle-about 3500 BC (between 4000 BC-2000 BC). These four grazing cows were found placed in a grave about 5,500 years ago at El Amra in southern Egypt. They are small, molded out of a single lump of clay from The Nile River. Discovered in 1900 by the Egypt Exploration Society in Grave A23, the four clay cows were found alongside a male body, a baton of clay, a small red pottery box, leg bones of a small animal, and pots. The existence of the clay cows shows that they were an important part of Egyptian life. Egypt used to be populated solely by small farming communities along The Nile River, the only source of water, and the taming of cows allowed for food and permanent communities. In the couple of hundred years leading up to the burial of these clay cows, humans had become hunting specific, targeting select animals. The lush Sahara was open and full of game, but began to dry out. The change in climate forced Egyptians to tame cattle. The burying of the clay cows with the deceased Egyptian signify that they were important enough to be passed on to the next life. Egyptian communities relied on cows for life, if other animals were scarce, cows could be eaten. As well, these cows were most likely used by Egyptians for drinking their blood instead of their milk as human tolerance for milk was not built up at this point in history. Cows eventually inspired worship-in religion a powerful cow goddess existed named Bat. The very creation of the cows in pottery form is intriguing. For a culture typically seen as very advanced and regal, one typically thinks of the gold statues and jewel inlaid artifacts, not clay cows. However, the domestication of the cows and their importance in society is enough to warrant a burial with the deceased.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 10:35PM:
Jennifer Steger: The Ain Sakhiri lovers figurine (~ 11,000 years old) is the oldest known representation of a couple making love in the world. It was found in a cave in the Judean desert. The pebble depicts a couple face to face. One person has wrapped their arms around the shoulders of their lover in an embrace. The knees of one of the figures bend up over the legs of the other. The pebble has been ingeniously carved so that, whichever way you look at it, the shape of the figurine is phallic but the genders of the couple are not revealed. This figurine is significant because it marks the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to the earliest beginnings of the agricultural revolution. Found amongst remnants of harvested seeds, the statue reflects a general shift towards a greater concern with the domestication of the mind, humans, and human society; for the first time in history humans began to settle down and consider monogamous mate selection and reproduction. Though some have speculated that the figurine is fertility-related, most agree that it is purely a reflection of what is thought to a newfound expression of tenderness and love. Considered artwork (rather than an artifact) due to it's timeless reflection of human desire, the Ain Sakhiri figurine depicts love's ability to remain eternally in the present moment.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 10:51PM:
Candice Sisovanvieng-Kim: Oxsus Chariot Model- the gold model of a Persian chariot is around 2500 years old. The model itself is small enough to be a toy, but was most likely an offering or gift to a god. The chariot is drawn by four horses, has large wheels and depicts two men, a driver and a man of importance. This model chariot is significant for many reasons. The single object demonstrates the vastness, culture and power of the Persian Empire. The chariot gives us insight to the advanced transportation system the Persian empire created. Because Persia was so vast, it was necessary to develop a system of roads which allowed efficient travel. In addition to technological achievements, the model chariot also demonstrates the diversity of culture within the Persian Empire. The object was found in Afghanistan, however evidence of other cultures are present. An Egyptian god is depicted on the front of the chariot, the metal work was in the style of central Persia, and the driver wore the costume of the Meads. The Persians, unlike other conquering Empires before them were not only tolerant but even eager to adopt other cultures.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 10:58PM:
Claire Straty: Lachish Reliefs -- these are stone carvings from the palace of King Sennacherib of Assyria that date back to 700 BC; they depict the Assyrian army attacking the city of Lachish, near Jerusalem. The carvings tell the story of the great seize, with the first scene showing the army marching in. The battle ended in victory for the Assyrians and the resounding success of their campaign is celebrated in these carvings. The reliefs, which were once painted, are still astonishing in that they show a perfectly military exercise and the cost of military conflict. This is one of the earliest pictures of refugees that exist. It is interesting to see how the reliefs reveal the overarching nature of war and the immutable character of it. The reliefs show that there is always war, death, and refugees. It is impossible not to think about the millions of refugees this area has seen over the centuries and is still seeing today.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 11:00PM:
Jan Bessey: The bird-shaped pestle was made 4000 to 8000 years ago, and found in Papua New Guinea. It stands a little over a foot tall, with a well-used bulb at the end for grinding food, and a shaft to hold on to. The pestle is important because it, along with others like it, demonstrates that farmers were growing crops in the area of New Guinea as many as 8000 years ago. These artifacts challenge the widely held view that farming began in the Middle East and spread from there. Instead, farming seems to have developed in many places simultaneously. This pestle tells a lot about the beginnings of human agriculture. I thought it was an interesting object because it came from an area that often isn’t thought of when looking at prehistorical cultures.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 11:02PM:
Maggie Goter: Olmec stone mask – At only about 5” high, this mask was likely part of a ceremonial pendant or headdress. Like many other ancient cultures, the Olmec believed themselves to be at the center of their universe so the four marks on the face suggestive of compass points may point to ownership by a central figure such as a king. It is interesting that artifacts such as this one can have extra significance given the particular climactic challenges faced by Central American archaeologists. The extreme climactic conditions of the region mean that almost no human remains have survived so the mask's display of body modification is something that would not otherwise be known. This mask and others like it show piercings, plugs, and tattoos that can be presumed to be part of the standard of beauty at the time. Olmec artifacts are also of special importance today because they give modern Mexicans, particularly those of indigenous descent, a chance to connect to their ancient culture. Indigenous Mexicans are often poor and marginalized in modern Mexican society, so finds that increase their cultural legitimacy are of particular sociopolitical importance. The Olmec artifacts give Mexicans of indigenous descent links to an ancestral culture contemporary to and rivaling that of ancient Egypt. Although the Olmec civilization collapsed around 400 BC, its impact on later civilizations can be plainly seen in Mayan and Incan city planning, games, and complex astrological calendars.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 11:09PM:
Lisa O'Donovan: Paracas Textiles: These textiles were discovered on the Southern coast of Peru and are over 2,000 years old. They were made of either alpaca or llama wool and are an unusual case of preservation; these textile fragments were found in an unusually dry tomb. There are different figures on each textile that resemble mythical creatures; these figures are holding daggers and severed heads and are unusually gruesome – which is interesting considering the cloth was used to preserve the dead. The Paracas textiles are important because they reveal a great deal about Peruvian culture. They were symbols of authority, wealth and power. In addition, these fabrics show us that this particular community was very prosperous; they were not only able to incorporate unique dyes and colors, but also were able to devote time and resources to the production of these fabrics. I found these textiles particularly interesting because of their unusual preservation and because they tell us a great deal about this ancient Peruvian society.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 11:21PM:
wcurley: Sphinx of Taharqo- Egypt had exploited the raw materials of the Sudanese for thousands of years. However, once Sudan recognized that Egypt was becoming fragmented they marched from city to city slowly conquering all of Egypt. The Sudanese pursued an active forgein policy and began influencing art, architecture and religion. The Sphinx of Taharqo for example, was modeled on the face of King Taharqo; one of the greatest leaders of the kingdom of Kush in modern-day Sudan. A sphinx is traditionally a important symbol in Egypt. After the Sudanese controlled the government of Egypt, they began introducing their own culture. This sphinx is a result of assimilation. War also brings changes and influences to culture that can lead to a unique piece of history.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 11:29PM:
Artemis Stamatiadis:I chose to discuss about the Bronze head of Augustus from Sudan. The portrait head is of the Roman Emperor Augustus who reined from 27 BC to 14 AD. It is made out of Bronze and the head is slightly tiled towards the side. This piece is of especial importance and interest for various reasons. Firstly, it shows the expansion and influence of the Roman Empire. The fact that such an artifact was found in Africa is a signifier of the power that the empire had on the Mediterranean. It suggests that Rome was strong politically, economically and culturally. It also shows that the Roman aesthetics were implemented even in foreign territories of the empire, which is proof of the empires interest to share their culture and not just conquer lands. Furthermore, it functioned as propaganda, reinstating the importance of the emperor throughout the empire and not just Rome. Secondly, the location in which this portrait was found is important for a specific historical occurrence. In 31BC it is noted on the site of the BBC that Augustus defeated a fellow Roman, Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, in order to conquer Egypt. By doing this Augustus actually transformed the republic to a monarchy. Finally, this piece is really interesting because it is one of the few Bronze pieces that survive. Most surviving portrait heads are made out of marble and the only reason this has survived is because it was meant to be hidden and forgotten so it was buried and kept intact. Also the imagery used for Augustus is really significant. He seems to be peaceful, with a somber expression, yet there is a lot of emphasis on his eyes. They stand apart from all his other facial features and reinforce an idea that even though Augustus is not probably in Africa, he knows and sees everything. He is the person who rules the empire and is always present, even if physically absent. He is presented always as a youthful, strong man. Never do his representations, as revealed here also, show any sign of weakness. Overall, it is an exceptional piece, both because it informs us a lot about the empire and Augustus, but also because the story of its survival is ironic and rare.

Posted at Mar 11/2010 11:30PM:
Kristen Kim: The Oxus chariot model is a tiny object at only 7.5 cm high and 19.5 cm--small enough, as the BBC announcer pointed out, to rest comfortably in one's palm. A remnant of the Ancient Persian Empire of 2500 years ago, this model of a chariot with two figures pulled by four horses is made entirely of solid gold. One of the figures is the driver; the other is a more important person, probably an administrator or governor of a province within the Ancient Persian Empire. Although we are unsure of the exact purpose of this golden chariot model, it could have been a very fine toy or, more likely, an offering to the gods. This tiny object is important in that it reflects many aspects of life in the Ancient Persian Empire. For one, the wheels are very high and large-spoked, indicating that it was made for serious travel. The Ancient Persian Empire was a 'road' empire and had a vast and well-developed transportation system. Also, the model reflects the great diversity of the empire: the dress of the figures indicates that they are of the Medes, a culture in central Persia; also, the figure of an Egyptian god at the front of the chariot indicates that a diverse range of religions and cultures existed within the empire. I initially picked this object because there were horses, my favorite animal, and because it was from the Ancient Persian Empire, a culture I have always admired. In listening to the BBC report, I was surprised to learn that this rather simple-looking object was made entirely of gold. More interesting was the realization that such a little and straight-forward-seeming object could reveal and reflect so much of a culture!

Posted at Mar 12/2010 12:02AM:
Brendan M. Burke: I chose to discuss the coin depicting a realistic portrait of Cleopatra, from the period 200 BC- 200 AD. Cleopatra reigned from 51 BC-30 BC. The coin is very small, and is said to be made of metal, though it does not reveal specifically which type. The piece is incredibly important because its ability to date (if it has a year), and its ability to prove that Cleopatra actually did exist. It is also important because of its ability to provide a true portrait of the ruler. In ancient times, royal portraits were often perfected to make the ruler seem a suitable head of state, with a prime example being the romanticism of Julio-Claudian portraiture. In western literature, Cleopatra has long been renowned for her beauty; yet, here in her portrait, we find an average looking woman with a beaked nose and worried features. It is a very rare portrait, and may have been completed for a reason. If Cleopatra looks worried, could it have been purposely reflected in her portraiture for a reason? Could the emotions in her portraiture reflect the state of affairs during her reign? As she was the last of the pharaohs, this could have very well been so. Cleopatra looks very old, and in portraying her, the artist could have purposely been conjuring some of the same effects that were used in the portraiture of the emperor Vespasian, who ruled during a tumultuous time in Roman history.

Posted at Mar 12/2010 12:20AM:
Brandon Tomasso: Sculpture of a Centaur and a Lapith:

This sculpture is from the Parthenon, around 440 BC. It portrays a centaur raging over a fallen, presumably dead Lapith. Centaurs are half-man, half horse creatures from Greek mythology, while Lapiths are a mythological race, kindred to the Centaurs. According to legend, the Lapiths made the mistake of giving the Centaurs wine, they drank too much, and began to reap havoc upon the Lapiths.

The Greeks rendered the piece in the midst of their struggles with the Persians. Given this conflict, they sought to emphasize the barbaric qualities of the Persians and their beast-like nature. In order to do so, they chose to portray the Persian as a Centaur (as it is not fully human) continuing to ravage a fallen Lapith. Given the legend, they were also implying that in the end, they would reign victorious over the Persians, as the Lapiths did over the Centaurs. It is a heroic, symbolic interpretation of the contemporary struggles.

Today, the piece has drawn much controversy over ownership. It is currently housed in the London Museum, however, the Greeks have presented a strong opposition. They assert they have the right to display a piece of THEIR own heritage. It is an important piece due to its unique interpretation of the ancient Greeks' political strife with the Persians, therefore the debate for ownership is quite heated.

Personally, I find the piece to be an unprecedented glimpse into the minds of the Ancient Greeks. Going beyond its aesthetic value, the piece demonstrates two elements of Greek culture and ties them together: their mythology and their interpretation of their political present. Through the sculpture, we see the way they viewed the war with the Persians, as well as their inner hope and confidence that they would prevail and reign victorious in the end. This suggests the sculpture itself had great significance to them in fueling their nationalistic passion. Since it is also symbolically tied to their mythology, we can make better sense of its implications and piece together a rare picture of the way they conceptualized their political reality.

Posted at Mar 12/2010 04:46AM:
Brooke Garcia: The Colossal Statue of Ramesses II

The Statue of Ramesses II, or Ramesses the Great, is a prime piece in the British Museum’s collection. It is made of granite and was carved in about 1250 BC. The statue was found in the Ramesseum, a temple devoted to the worship of Ramesses, in Thebes, Egypt. Ramesses ruled Egypt for 66 years and lived to be 90 years old. I took a great amount of work to even move and carve this one statue, from the quarrying in Aswan to the final carving in Thebes. Furthermore, this statue was only one of many adorning the temple.

The piece is very grand, and I believe that it is important to the history of the world. Not only can you learn about the ancient Egyptian culture from this statue, you can also learn more about the more recent past as well. Today, only the upper half of the statue is displayed in the British Museum. It was broken in the 19th century and sent to England, and it is unfortunate that the whole statue is not together. However, the podcast said that the statue, which was on display, helped Europeans in the 19th century to belief that fine art did not originate in Greece, but in Egypt instead. The truth is that although what the British did was barbaric to the statue, it helped people learn more about the ancient Egyptians and contributed to the larger history of the world.

Posted at Mar 12/2010 12:17PM:
Amy Heuer: The bronze statuette of the Minoan Bull Leaper dates from about 1500 BCE. As its name suggests, it depicts a man leaping over a bull. The bull himself seems to be leaping as well. It is also very large compared to the size of the man. One of the most fascinating things about this sculpture to me is the ideas it raises about cultural and religious norms within societies. Professor Alcock had mentioned bull leaping before in class, and it indeed seems to be a custom that had major significance for the Minoan people. According to the website, the Minoans even developed a special artistic posture for the bull, called the "flying gallop," which is employed on this particular sculpture. It is interesting to think about the values that could be implied from the society's emphasis on bull leaping. What does the observation the podcast made that Minoans were "collectively fascinated with the idea of confronting the bull" say about them? The questions of the implications of the society's emphasis on this particular, daring sport are even more interesting when they are considered alongside modern societies who incorporate this activity as well. In Spain and France, bull leaping is still practiced today, although it does not seem to have the possibly religious and governmental emphasis it may have had in Crete. The Minoan Bull Leaper thus can help us think about the effects of activities on societies, and how these effect may vary depending on the importance given to the activities.

Posted at Mar 12/2010 12:18PM:
Kent Holland: Olduvai Handaxe

The Olduvai Handaxe was found in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, East Africa. Handaxes were among the most important of objects during its time (1.2-1.4 million years ago). The handaxes were built by very skilled laborers, with more work going into each handaxe than one would think from looking at the artifact today. Acting as a sort of "swiss army knife" with great versatility, the handaxe aids hunters in their pursuit of food. The handaxe also helped skin animals for clothing, as well as chop wood for home building and wood fires.

Interestingly enough, this particular handaxe was built larger than seems optimal for everyday use. This might suggest that it was a showpiece, or belonged to someone important. In addition, the shaping of stone has also been linked to the shaping of speech. According to experts, the builder of this stone probably had language skills equivalent to a modern 7 year-old. Hence, this object represents both the early stages of tool-building and the early stages of language.

Posted at Mar 12/2010 12:20PM:
[email protected]: Trent Huxley-I analyzed the statue of Ramesses the second. This is a huge and detailed statue of the great Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses, made 1250BC and it is constructed from granite. The statue uses the power of scale creating this large and magnificent statue to show Ramesses grandeur. He lived till 90 and fathered 100 children. He had a long and illustrious career and was worshipped as a god for years after his reign. He took on man military campaigns and building projects. This object seems to be have been added to the list because of vast impact on the viewer and the communicative effect it has on displaying Ramesses power and legacy.