CLICK THIS to read all key terms, compiled

Atam: A pre-Islamic structure found in the Arabian peninsula. Utum were large, multi-storied buildings built with stone. These buildings were thought to have been used as defensive structures, where a clan was able to take refuge during times of strife with other clans. This is an important concept to distinguish pre-Islamic Arabia from Islamic Arabia. After their conversion, clans were less likely to engage in violent conflict, and therefor utum were not as necessary for defense as they once were.

Ansar literally means "helpers" and denotes the Medinan citizens that helped Muhammad and the Muhajirun on the arrival to the city after the Migration to Medina. They belonged to two main tribes, the Banu Khazraj and the Banu Aws.

Ali Ibn Abu Talib One of the first to converts to Islam, Ali Ibn Abu Talib was also the Prophet Muhammad's cousin and later became his son-in-law when Ali married Muhammad's daughter Fatima. Ali later became the fourth and final Rashidun caliph (reigning 656-661) and faced early opposition to his rule from the Quraysh, who objected to Ali's identification with the ansar; he subsequently sought support in Kufa, Iraq where his legitimacy suffered due to the fact that his supporters there were closely implicated in the death of the third caliph Uthman. Ali's political capital as caliph was further weakened when he was later forced to make an arbitration agreement with Mu-'awiya. During his rule, Ali expressed concern for the problems of the underprivileged and stressed the importance of the caliph's role as a religious leader unifying the Muslim community. He was assassinated in 661 by a Khawarij/Kharajite. Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:21AM: ian: A major aspect of his significance is that he represents the founding imam for the Shiite sect - litteraly the "part of Ali". Thus his decendents would be the line of succession that many would look to for legitimacy. Key concpets here: fragmentation and legitimacy

Aws and Khazraj tribes • Indigenous tribes of Medina who were at war with each other at the time Muhammad arrived there • Muhammad mediated their feud by absorbing both factions into his Muslim community, forbidding bloodshed among Muslims • Post-peace, the two tribes were collectively called the "Ansar" or "helpers" because of their assistance to Muhammad • They are involved in the "Constitution of Medina," a text in sira literature that laid out the idea for a single "umma," headed by Muhammad, and made up of the Ansar and the Muhajjirun • There were still some members of Aws and Khazraj tribes who were outwardly counted among Muhammad's supporters, but actually worked against his religious teachings (Hamid Dabashi writes about it in "Authority in Islam"

Asabiyya Popularized by Ibn Khaldun in his The Muqaddimah, the notion of asabiyya refers to group solidarity. This includes unity, cohesion, and a collective consciousness shared among a group of persons. Often such a group can contain members of a clan, tribe, or persons of common descent, but the connection between two members of a group need not be one of blood. The asabiyyah can be a force that makes or breaks the success of a group or individual, and thus it will certainly play a role in the development and spread of Islamic civilizations. See page xli of the Rosenthal's introduction to The Muqaddimah for another discussion of the term. While the Prophet may have initially used asabiyya, or his ties to the Quraysh, to support his early work, he needed more than kinship ties to spread his message. Steven Caton explains that, as the community grew, early Muslims became more united by shared religious beliefs and values than by feelings of shared space or descent.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:24AM: ian: Remember that Khaldun is writing his theory in the 14th century so long after the prophetic era. Clearly he sees it as a significant motor of history despite new forms of identity and cohession based on Islam. What is the relationship of asabiyya to the notion of the state?

Ashraf The ashraf (sing. sharif) were the leaders and chiefs of the new tribal groups who converted to Islam. Their beliefs and goals tended to conflict most particularly in Iraq with the qurra, who were the early Islamic elite. They often had access to opportunities, land, and wealth that the newly conquered lands had to offer. They were one of the emerging factions in the new state.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:25AM: ian: Key issue: continued legitimacy of the tribe even after the ridda wars.

Ahl al-bayt The ahl al-bayt is the family of the Prophet Muhammad. In more colloquial terms, it is the royal family of Islam. Members of the ahl al-bayt are revered by members of both the Sunni and Shiite sects, though who actually comprises the ahl al-bayt is disagreed upon. The existence of the ahl al-bayt contributed to a growing sense of factionalism at the end of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs' rule, as issues of leadership and identity became more prominent. The ahl al-bayt competed with ansar, medinans, and others for leadership of the umma, and legitimacy of rule was a constant problem for the Islamic community.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:26AM: ian: Why are they significant? Do they threaten the legitimacy of other groups within the emerging Muslim society?

A'isha (daughter of Abu Bakr) A'isha was Abu Bakr's daughter and Muhammad's third wife. This marriage gave Abu Bakr a certain level of legitimacy when claiming to be the successor of Muhammad. A'isha was Muhammad's favorite wife and it was in her company that he did some of his best thinking. She was a well educated woman and was one of the main sources for the hadith.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:27AM: ian: What was her political role after the Prophet's death? Why did she fight against Ali?

Abna al-Dawla

al-Azhar Founded in 359/970 (see Madrasa article, p. 29) under the Fatimids, al-Azhar is the premier center for Sunni scholarship in the world. It is associated with the al-Azhar mosque in which it developed and both are located in the medieval quarter of Cairo. The rulings coming out of al-Azhar provide intellectual and religious leadership in the Islamic world, and the basic program of study at the university was and continues to be Islamic law, theology and the Arabic language.

ashura Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:19PM: ian: Marking the institutionalization of Islamic learning - though origins were for Ismaili Shiism.

• an annual celebration that had a special meaning for the Shi'is • commemorated the battle of Karbala at which the Imam Husayn has been killed on the tenth day of the month of Muharram in the year 680. The death was seen as martyrdom. • For the Shi'is this was one of the most significant days in history. According to Albert Hourani "it marked the point at which the visible course of the world had diverged from that which God has willed for it" (Hourani, 1991; 184). • At some point, the telling of this story turned into a dramatic re-enactment of it. Shi'is would wear signs of mourning, sermons would be preached in mosques, narrating the martyr and explaining its meaning. • This is, according to Hourani, a common trope in Shi'ism, where "reverence for the imams had tended to take turn them into more than human figures, visible manifestations of the spirit of God" (Hourani, 1991; 184).

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:20PM: ian: An example of the important role of ritual practice in distinguishing Sunni from Shia Islam.

Byzantine Empire Throughout late antiquity, the Byzantine empire was an imperial order that served to continue in the Hellenic tradition of its Eastern Roman predecessor and enjoyed an interim status as a dominating power of the Near East. Historically, the empire was characterized by a contentious dynamic between the Greek-speaking elite of its urban centers and the Arabic-speaking populations of marginal agrarian communities. Although its imperial structure was weakened following the emergence of the Islamic state, it was not subject to the same degree of incorporation as its Sasanian counterpart. Its imperial legacy had lasting impacts on the subsequent Islamic polity, as manifest through continued traditions of urbanization and administrative system of government.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:28AM: ian: Christianity!!!

Barmakids The Barmakid family, converts to Islam during the Umayyad period, was one of the most important in the 'Abbasid period. They helped to install Harun al-Rashid as caliph and consequently gained great power in his administration. With this power they greatly altered the landscape by centralizing political and fiscal functions in Baghdad, but this proved difficult when they lacked military support. Nevertheless, this process of centralization would prove to be a lasting legacy. To some extent prefiguring the Mu'tazili party, they were not Shi'ites but rather advocated to "reconcile all the members of the Family of the Prophet" (Kennedy, 141). After enjoying nearly a decade of power in the administration of the caliph, they famously fell for reasons that probably related to succession. Their legacy as creators of a centralized administration would influence later bureaucrats and administrations.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:22PM: ian: the pre-figure the kinds of relationships between elites (and the vizirate class) and the political legitimacy of the caliph.

bayt al-hikma Bayt al-hikma was the royal library of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mum in Baghdad in 832. Its name literally means "house of wisdom." It was a main center of translations and study of Greek philosophical and scientific texts, as well as a home for many Arabic manuscripts. It is important for a number of reasons. It showed the close relationship between royal patronage and intellectual pursuits (similar to how an observatory was built for Omar Khayyum in Isfahan in Samarkand). It is also indicative of the importance placed on learning, philosophy and the sciences. The path of rational philosophy in the tradition of Aristotle and Plato was highly valued.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:20PM: ian: Also about the growing trade and appreciation of books as a luxury commodity.

Baldwin I A crusader during the First Crusade, Baldwin I became the Count of Edessa before becoming the first king of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1110.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:23PM: ian: Note here that this was a decission not to leave crusader states under papal authority but to provide a lay ruler. Who that would be was part of how a heterogenous set of Franks would come around to finding leadership.

Buyids The Buyids were a shiah Persian dynasty that originated from the Daylaman. They controlled most of modern day Iraq and Iran for the 10th and 11th centuries. The Buyids are known for bringing about a sort of Iranian renaissance. They did this by capturing Baghdad and setting up a puppet caliph. They eventually fell to the Seljuk Turks.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:24PM: ian: Consider their role in bringing about the Shia century. Also how did they opperate within the frame of a lingering Abbasid caliphate.

Burji Mamluks Their name--of the tower--comes from the fact that they ruled from the Citadel, the tower, east of Cairo. From 1382 to 1517 the Burji Mamluks ruled Egypt. The dynasty was founded by Barkuk, who had participated in a revolt that began in Syria and spread to Egypt. One of the most important accomplishments of the Burji Dynasty was the conquest of Cyprus, but ultimately the Ottomans conquered Egypt and Cairo. The Burji stayed on as the ruling class of Egypt, keeping some of their influence, but they were subject to the Ottomans. Most of the Burji were Circassian.

Baybars A mamluk (military slave owned by the Ayyubid sultan) under the last Ayyubid sultan, al-Salih (d. 1249). When the mamluks killed al-Salih's son and heir, they seized control and began the Mamluk sultunate; Baybars eventually became sultan (1260-1277). He fought against the crusaders and the Mongols. Once again, this is a case of military slaves becoming the power behind a ruling group, and eventually taking over. The Mamluks ruled from Egypt, but were ethnically probably Turkish during this time period.

barseem (clover)A type of clover grown in the Middle East. It is high in protein and are easily consumed when cooked properly.

Constitution of Medina A series of agreements draw up by the Prophet during the two or three years following the Hijra (622 CE), or the migration from Mecca to Medina of Muhammad and about seventy of his followers. These agreements were made between the Muhajirun and the important tribes of Yathrib (Medina), including Jews, Christians, and the newly-converted Muslims known as the Ansar. The Constitution of Medina establishes the umma as a community united across tribal boundaries and separate from pagan society. It also incorporates the Muhajirun into Medinan tribal structure, as the Muhajirun had abandoned the security of their Meccan clan links and were concerned about their future in Medina. Several clauses also deal with the relationship between the Muslim community and the Jewish tribes, stating that each group has a right to practice its religion freely. The Constitution of Medina establishes the city as a new haram, much like that in Mecca, with Muhammad as its founding holy man. These agreements demonstrate the Prophet's role as a community leader and arbiter.

Caliph The Caliph is leader of all Muslims or the Ummah and the political and religious head of the institution of the Caliphate. The first four Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Aff, Ali ibn Abi Talib, are considered by most Muslims to be the four rightly guided caliphs because they supposedly followed the Sunnah and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad the best. The Caliphate as an institution and the leadership of the Caliph has caused sectarian schisms within Islam due to disagreements concerning who should succeed Muhammad and the extent of the power possessed by the Caliph. In general, Sunnis believe that a legitimate Caliph could be chosen by the community while Shiites believe that the prophet Muhammad indicated that Ali ibn Abi Talib, the prophet's cousin and son-in-law, was supposed to succeed the prophet.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:32AM: ian: Literally means - successor but also has the connotation of serving as the vice-regent of God on earth. Indeed theologically speaking all humans are considered as "khulifa' al-ard" - caliphs on the earth - denoting their particular responsibilities as God's caretakers of Creation.

convivencia Convivencia is the term used to describe the time period from 711-1492 in Spain when Muslims, Jews, and Christians lived together in relative peace. This was a time of great learning and cultural expression for members of all three groups. Scholars debate the extent to which it constituted a time of religious tolerance and harmony.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:25PM: ian: It has become a modern analogy for what could be achieved in trying to subvert the present narratives of civilization clash.

dar al-Islam/dar al-harb For Muslims, the concepts Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (Abode of War) serve most generally to differentiate Muslim spaces from non-Muslim spaces. Dar al-Islam designates a territory where Muslims are free to practice their religion, though this often implies the implementation of Islamic law, whereas Dar al-Harb represents those lands ruled by non-believers. Since the latter are not subject to Islamic governance, it was deemed incumbent upon Muslim rulers – specifically the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphs who often continued the expansion begun by the Prophet Mohammad – to extend the Dar al-Islam vis-à-vis jihad. It is important to note that the objective of this jihad was not to forcibly convert non-believers to Islam, but to extend the jurisdiction of Islamic government, i.e. Dar al-Islam (Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, entry: Dar al-Harb).

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:35AM: ian: Dar al-harb could be "civilized" such as the Byzantine empire - it just had not submitted to God's will as defined in terms of Islamic theology and jurisprudence. It is also important to note that these terms were fluid and developed over time with levels of disagreement among scholars and rulers about what actual physical territory they described.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:35AM: ian: So what does this mean in terms of the 'clash of civilizations' thesis?

Dawla Dawla-Meaning state and dynasty. Group solidarity, or asabiyya makes dawla possible.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:37AM: ian: How might we see this as diffferent from say the concept of 'umma' or 'caliphate'? What does this imply about the politics of the Islamic world? Can their be more than one? What are the markers of a 'dawla'?

diwan SDS: The list of those entitled to a stipend paid from the treasury of the Caliphate. Generally included soldiers conquering or garrisoning territory and their dependents. Eventually the term came to mean the more general administration of the treasury.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:39AM: ian:What did the institution of the diwan mean for the early Islamic state? How did it change the society and the tensions? Key issue here: institutions, centralization, socio-political groups

dhimmi Non-converts, or “protected people” within the newly conquered lands. This referred primarily to People of the Book, Jews and Christians, who paid the jizya, poll tax, but generally retained more rights and social status than other non-Muslims.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:40AM: ian: What does this say about the social hierarchy emerging in the new Islamic polity?

Dome of the Rock Constructed between 685-691 CE under the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik bin Marwan, the Dome of the Rock is the earliest Umayyad monument, as well as the oldest Islamic structure to survive intact to the modern period. The building is a shrine, and not a mosque. It is located on the Haram al-Sharif (Temple Mount) of Jerusalem, beside the al-Aqsa Mosque, whose first form had been built by the Caliph 'Umar. The Dome of the Rock's design and dimensions reflect architectural language borrowed from Christian and Byzantine prototypes (such as the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the form of the maryriums). The octagonal building is decorated both internally and externally with Arabic inscriptions that reaffirm the Shahada and Tawhid. This is the first instance of monumental Islamic inscription. There is no accepted tradition explaining the building's construction. Some theorize that it may have been an attempt by 'Abd al-Malik to create a new Haram at Jerusalem as Ibn al-Zubayr had seized the Ka'ba at Mecca, removing it from Umayyad control. However, this seems unlikely as not only is this explanation entirely absent from the historical record, but it also would have been a religiously dangerous move for the Caliph to openly violate the Hajj, one of the clear tenets of the faith, less than seventy years after the Prophet's death. It also would fail to explain the continued Umayyad interest (e.g. al-Hajjaj's reconstruction) in the Ka'ba following its retaking if the Dome of the Rock was supposed to absorb its ritual significance. Others have posited that it commemorates the Isra' (Night Journey) of the Prophet in Sura 17. The Dome of the Rock then would be at the site where the Prophet's Mi'raj (Ascension into heaven) occurred. However, not only do many Qur'anic scholars not accept Jerusalem as the correct or necessary interpretation for the destination of the Isra', but a smaller shrine was later built on the Haram al-Sharif commemorating the Mi'raj, suggesting that the larger, earlier shrine was not fulfilling this role. It has also been understood as an Umayyad attempt while Islamizing Jerusalem to articulate and affirm their role within the religion by creating a dynastic shrine. The reason(s) for the construction of the Dome of the Rock will probably remain elusive however due to the lack of evidence and information concerning the ritual use of the space, making it difficult to discern its function.

doctrine of the infalible Imam

The Shī‘ah believe that the Imams are the true Caliphs or rightful successors of Muḥammad, and Twelver and Ismā‘īlī Shī‘ah further that Imams are possessed of supernatural knowledge, authority, and infallibility (‘Iṣmah) as well as being part of the Ahl al-Bayt, the family of Muḥammad. [1] Both beliefs distinguish the Shī‘ah from Sunnis. Doctrine of the Infallibility of the Imam We believe that, like the prophet, an Imam must be infallible, that is to say incapable of making errors or doing wrong, either inwardly or outwardly, from his birth to his death, either intentionally or unintentionally, because the Imams are the preservers of Islam and it is under their protection. Their position in regard to Islam is the same as the Prophet's, and the reasoning which necessitates their infallibility is the same as that which necessitates the Prophet's infallibility, and there is no difference between them in these matters. An Arabic verse says: "For Allah it is not impossible: to unite all the world in one person."

Dhow A dhow (Arabic,داو) is a traditional Arab sailing vessel with one or more lateen sails. They are primarily used along the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula, Pakistan, India, and East Africa. Larger dhows have crews of approximately thirty, while smaller dhows typically have crews of around twelve.

Edessa, County of The County of Edessa was the first crusader state which lasted from 1098 to 1148. It stretched from Antioch in the east, north into Armenia, and into the Jazira (northern Iraq); it was the largest crusader state in terms of territory (but the smallest in terms of population). Edessa was the only landlocked crusader state, and half of its terrority lay to the east of the Euphrates which rendered it vulnerable to attacks. These geographical features made Edessa the weakest and least Latinized crusader state. Most of the inhabitants of Edessa were Christian, specifically Assyrians, Jacobites and Armenian Orthodox, although there were a number of Muslims and Greek Orthodox as well. A Roman Catholic patriarch was placed in Edessa, but there was never a large population of crusader settlers. Edessa became a crusader state when Baldwin of Boulogne left the main crusading army and established himself in the ancient city of Edessa, where he became ruler in 1098. The county passed into the hands of a series of rulers before it was lost in a seige to the Muslim military leader Zengi, father of Nur ad-Din, in December 1144, thus initiating the Second Crusade.

Fitna This Arabic word generally refers to sedition and often means “civil war or dispute within the Muslim Community.” (Kennedy) The so-called First Fitna (656–661) was the conflict between ‘Ali and Mu’āwiya over claim to the caliphate after the death of Uthman I. The Second Fitna refers to the internal strife following the death of Mu’āwiya, which led to the cementation of the rival factions, Qays/Mudar and Yaman.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:42AM: ian: What does this suggest about the nature of the early Islamic polity? What are the tensions that lead to this kind of strife?

Fustat Fustat was the capital of Egypt. It was first a garrison town built during the conquest of Egypt under Umar. There were a large number of Arab settlers and as the city grew, the Arabs and Egyptians became more intermingled. In 969, the Fatimids conquered Egypt and established their capital as al-Qahira (Cairo), just north of Fustat. Fustat/al-Qahira was extremely important for its economic power. It had economic ties throughout the Mediterranean, Africa, and even into Europe. Thus, Fustat/al-Qahira was filled with markets selling goods from around the world. Al-Qahira was really the court of the Fatimids, complete with palaces, mosques, gates, etc., whereas Fustat was the city when most people lived and where trade was conducted. Fustat also apparently had apartment buildings of several stories, though none survive. By the end of the Fatimid period, al-Qahira began to become more of a true city, as opposed to just a caliphal city, and eventually al-Qahira supplanted Fustat.

Fiqh Fiqh is the Arabic word referring to Islamic Jurisprudence as decided by Islamic jurists known as Fugaha. The development of fiqh relies directly upon Islamic religious texts, the Quran and the Sunnah (in particular, the shari'ah). Fiqh is intended to regulate Islamic ritual practices, societal morals, and social norms. While fiqh draws upon Islamic texts, it is understood that Islamic jurists also use a degree of human reasoning and understanding in the creation of Fiqh. In Sunni Islam, there are four prominent schools of Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh strives to create a full understanding of Islamic law based on the holy texts. It categorizes different social activities and there regulations into five categories: simply permitted (mubah), recommended (mandub), required (wajib), disapproved (makruh), and forbidden (haraam). Fiqh still plays a profoundly important role in shari'ah courts all over the modern Islamic world.

Ghassanids Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:28PM: ian: With the institutionalization of the madrasa fiqh was by far the dominant Islamic science and source for both ethical and religious practice structuring social relations within Muslim societies.

Arab Bedouin tribe that formed a client state of the Byzantine Empire in its proxy war with the Sasanian Empire (through the Lakhmids), which occupied the Syrian steppe. The Ghassanids were a mostly Christianized tribe, and important supporters of the Monophysite creed.

Geniza documents The Geniza documents were jewish writings from Egypt starting in the late 800s. They gave a detailed picture of economic and cultural life in this region. The documents, which include all sorts of writings from literature to court documents, show the large role that Jews played in the culture at this time. They were found at the Ezra Synagogue in Cairo. These arabic writings in the hebrew alphabet show how important and integrated Jews were into this society.

Hadith (pl. ahadith) The ahadith are oral renderings of Muhammad's actions and way of life by those who knew him. The ahadith have had a profound effect on Islamic jurisprudence, playing a major role in the determination of sunnah, the Islamic way of life.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:45AM: ian: Sunnah refers more to the "normative example of the Prophet" but does serve as a basis for the broader notion of the Islamic way of life. One of the imporatant issues surrounding these traditions was their collection and authentification. This became a fundamental religious science from very early on.

Haram The site of sanctuary, or haram, was located in Mecca and was of the utmost importance in pre-Islamic Arabia. It was a neutral area where hostile tribes could come to exchange goods and and settle disputes. At the haram no violence or killing was permitted. During the sixth century the Quraysh tribe became guardians of the haram. The haram allowed the Quraysh prestige to grow, which gave the Prophet a platform to exercise his influence on.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:46AM: ian: Are there any other harams? What is their relationship to more general questions of political and spiritual leadership?

Posted at Feb 19/2009 11:14PM: Akram: There were other Harams, as a Haram was more of a sacred geographic site where groups could meet with the expectation that no harm would come to them. A site would become a Haram once it was designated so by a Holy Man. Because these sites were known to be safe areas for different groups to meet and partake in discourse, the Prophet's mission to teach others the Islamic faith was easier to exercise.

Hijra JRG: The Hijra is the term used to refer to Muhammad and his follower's journey from Mecca to Medina (formerly Yathrib) in 622. Muhammad and his followers were persecuted in Mecca. When Muhammad received an invitation to go to Yathrib as a neutral arbitrator in a dispute between the twelve important tribes of the city, he chose to do so and told his followers to come with him. Muhammad convinced the tribes to submit to Islam and to accept "The Constitution of Medina," which created an alliance between the tribes. The Hijra was (and is) considered so important to Islam that, in 638, Umar proclaimed the year of the Hijra as the first year of the Muslim calendar. *Technically, the first Hijra was in 615 when many of Muhammad's followers escaped Meccan persecution by traveling to the Christian Kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia.

Hadir The hadir were the semi-settled Arab encampments that survived the Byzantine period. When the first Muslims arrived in Syria, they found these settlements conducive to their building the amsar and thus the hadir had great importance for the development of urbanism in the Islamic empire. While the hadir may have been located on the periphery of the amsar, they were still a part of the urban landscape. The lack of total integration of the hadir into the amsar, however, suggests that the new rulers supported segregating certain populations in these urban centers.

harem Deriving from the same root as haram meaning forbidden or inviolable, the harem was a secluded space in which the royal Islamic women, beginning with the Abbasids, were confined. Although precedent for the isolation of elite women was found in the Qur'an (specifically, the injunctions Muhammad placed on his wives) the harem was found in many non-Muslim cultures, including Central Asian, Byzantine, and Persian. After the reign of Harun al-Rashid, the harem came into regular use and following the caliph al-Mamun no official marriages were recorded for the Abbasid caliphs. The harem consisted of official wives, unmarried sisters of the caliph, the queen mother, concubines, daughters, many slavewomen and the eunuchs who served as guards. Despite their isolation, these women were members of the khassa and were able to amass significant wealth. Knowledge of the harem in Europe was traditionally shaped by Orientalist literature, traveler’s accounts, and art that served to eroticize as well as emphasize the exotic nature of the harem and its women.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:30PM: ian: While often seen as a symbol of geneder repression in certain instances it could serve as a base of power for elite women in politics. Hashashin (the Assassins) They split from the Fatmid Isma’ili Empire after a dispute regarding the succession of the 8th Fatimid Caliph Ma’ad al-Mustansir Billah. Nizar’s supporters (after his execution) were led by Hassan-I Sabbah and in 1090 the formal origin of the Federation of the Assassins was officially marked by the establishment of the fortress of Alamut. Alamut became the capital. Since they were unable to form a conventional army they used the act of public political assassination as a system of survival and defense. The trained assassins are known as Fedayeen. The Seljuk Turks were often their targets. Today they are survived by the Shia Imami Isma’ili Muslims, also known as the Nizari.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:31PM: ian: Perhaps we might bring in the discussion that we had about terrorism and the notion of legitimate state violence.

Hamdanids • Muslim Arab dynasty of northern Iraq (Al-Jazirah) and Syria (890-1004) • claimed to have been descended from the ancient Banu Taghlib Christian tribe of Mesopotamia and northern Arabia • founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of Mardin in SE Anatolia by the Abbasid Caliphs in 890 • Ali Saif al-Daula 'Sword of the State' ruled (945-967) Northern Syria from Aleppo, and became the most important opponent of the Byzantine Empire's (Christian) expansion. His court was a centre of culture, thanks to its nurturing of Arabic literature • To stop the Byzantine advance, Said al-Daula converted to Shiism in 969 and put Aleppo under the suzerainty of the Fatimids in Egypt, but in 1003 the Fatimids deposed the Hamdanids anyway Hulegu (1217-1265) Hulegu was a Mongol ruler and a grandson of Genghis Khan who expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol empire and founded the Ilkhanate Dynasty of Persia, which would pave the way for the Safavid Dynasty several centuries later. Under his leadership a huge Mongol army destroyed Abbasid power in Baghdad and the Ayubbids in and around Damascus. Hulegu's conquests opened Persia to European and Chinese influences, which would have a great impact on the creation of a distinct Persian style of art and architecture.

Ismailism Ismailism was a movement within Shi’a Islam arising from issues of succession. Ismaili doctrine held that the Ismail, the son of Jafar al-Sadiq (died 765) was the rightful successor of the imamate, although he died before his father. Ismailis believed that Ismail, or his son Muhammad, was the last true imam, and that there could be no visible imam until he reemerged as the mahdi (Kennedy, pg 285). From the tenth to twelfth century, Ismailism was the largest branch of Shi’a thought and was the doctrine supported by the caliphate and elite in Fatimid Egypt. It was the dominant practice in Cairo, although most of the citizens of the Fatimid empire remained Sunni. While there were some tensions over differences in religious practice, the Fatimid dynasty experienced little religious conflict. The Al-Azhar mosque in Cairo, founded in 975, was the center for Ismaili thought and learning.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:33PM: ian: More broadly it demonstrates the growing sectarianism in Islam and some aspects of new missionizing that took place in once peripheral regions of the Muslim world (e.g. Berber North Africa).

Ibn Rushd (1126–98 (AH 520–95)). Spanish Muslim theologian, philosopher, Qur'n scholar, natural scientist, and physician. Known as Averroes in the West. He is known particularly for his commentary and translation on Aristotle, which had been lost in the West, and for other works on philosophy and theology. His most famous work is Tahāfut al-Tahāfut ("The Incoherence of Incoherence"). He saw no conflict between religion and philosophy and argued for the eternity of nature. A school of philosophy known as Averroism emerged in Western Europe.

Posted at Apr 10/2009 01:34PM: ian: A champion of reason as a vehicle for truth. He would become the main target of a critique by al-Ghazali for this which then would serve to locate Aristotelian philosophy outside of more orthodox Sunni thought.

Ibn Batutta Ibn Batutta was a famous Moroccan traveler who lived from 1304 to 1368/69 during the Merinid dynasty. He was born into a family of legal scholars from Tangier, and when he was young, he studied the Sunni Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence. At the age of twenty one, he set off for Mecca in order to preform the Hajj. He wouldn't come back to Morocco for 24 years. After completing the Hajj, Ibn Batutta set off to travel the world including covering almost the entirety of the Islamic known world and including North Africa, West Africa, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, central Asia, and China. After returning from his travels and at the request of the Sultan of Morocco, Abu Inan Faris, Ibn Batutta dictated the accounts of his travels in what is known as rihla--the Arabic word for travel/journey. Rihla provides us an important account of the many places, cultures, and peoples--particularly those of the Islamic world--during the 14th C. It also highlights the diversity of culture, language, and urban and agrarian landscapes that made up the Islamic world of the 14th C. For centuries, rihla was fairly unknown until in the 1800s, German and English scholars found and began to publish extracts of Ibn Batutta's rihla.

Ilkhanids The Ilkhanids (1256-1335 CE) were a Mongol dynasty that ruled over present-day Iran, most of Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and western Pakistan. Founded by Hulegu, a grandson of Genghis Khan, the Ilkhanids (meaning subordinate khan which refers to their early dependancy upon the Golden Horde) converted to Islam late in the 13th century CE although the Crusaders had hoped that they would become Christians (Hulegu’s mother was a Nestorian). In their reign the Ilkanids virtually ended the Abbasid Caliphate, controlled the Seljuks as a vassal state, waged war with the Mamluks, and unified Persia as a territorial and political entity, paving the way for the Safavids. The Il-khans were enthusiastic patrons: during their rule there was a proliferation of arts and architecture (which had Far Eastern influences) as well as in the sciences. Furthermore, ancient trade routes, notably the Silk Road, reopened in this period as the 14th century saw the reemergence of world systems.

iqta system Iqta is defined by Kennedy as "assignment to an individual of right to collect taxes from an area or community, usually in exchange for military service."The development of the iqta system was in the first half of the tenth century and was established to relieve the state treasury when insufficient tax revenue made it difficult for the government to pay army salaries. Therefore, the iqtas were essentially areas of land where the soldiers could collect the revenue directly.

al-Jahiz Abu 'Uthman 'Amr ibn Bakr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri, also known as al-Jahiz. Born in Basra in 781, al Jahiz is considered a great Muslim thinker and writer. Over the course of his lifetime, which spanned approximately 90 years, he wrote over two hundred books on various subjects including animal evolution, human psychology and behavior, and language and grammar. Although al-Jahiz travelled to and lived in the Abbasid capitals of Baghdad, and later Samarra, he never held a position in the Baghdad court, which many scholars view as the reason al-Jahiz had such intellectual freedom. Al-Jahiz has also been credited with the enhancing the style of Arabic Prose.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:12AM: ian: A social critic and developer of the literary tradition. Recall the kinds of things he had to say in his Avarice and the Avaricious.

jahiliyya This term refers to "Days of Ignorance" that preceded Allah's divine intervention through the Prophet Muhammad and the Qur'an; it is a concept describing the state of ignorance of God's divine guidance and thus seeks to describe the state of anyone not following the Qur'an. Further 'jahiliyya' suggests an element of barbarity that is similar to that associated with pre-Islamic Arabs and which also differentiates Muslim from non-Muslim.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:13AM: ian: It raises the question of how the emergence of an Islamic polity and its culture marked a rupture with an Arab past. Did the Umayyads for instance embody this?

Kaba According to the Islamic tradition, this, the most holy of all consecrated sites for Muslim followers, was founded by the Prophet Ibrahim and his son Isma’il. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic history, its protection was ensured by the Qur'aysh tribe of Mecca. Although the theological relevance of this Meccan holy shrine was assured in the Qur’an, it wasn’t until the period following the Hudabiyya pilgrimage (and the eventual dissolution of idol worship within the sacred space), that the Ka’ba came to be a focus of Muslim worship. In the time of the Prophet Muhammad, it was established that, rather than being performed in the direction of Jerusalem, prayer should instead be offered in the direction of the Ka’ba. Its significance is also manifest in the Islamic pillar of faith which stipulates that the Ka’ba be the destination site for the holy pilgrimage known as Hajj.

Khadija (d. 619) The first wife of the Prophet Muhammad and also the first convert to Islam. She was a wealthy Qurashi widow of the Banu Hashim whose wealth was inherited from her successful father. Muhammad, while in his twenties, was employed as her business manager and soon, although he was fifteen years younger than her, the two were married. The marriage was advantageous for Muhammad, as it gave him financial security and children, including Fatima. Khadija provided Muhammad with much emotional support as he received the Meccan revelations, which began in 610.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:48AM: ian: What can her life tell us about emerging gender relationships within Islam?

Kharijites Distinct from Sunnis and Shiites, the Kharijities were a distinct community group primarily from Southern Iraq that initially supported Ali ibn Abi Talib as Caliph but then declared that any pious or able Muslim could be Caliph, and the Caliph should be chosen based on piety not based on lineage or community support. Moreover, the Kharijites demanded the right to revolt against Caliphs who did not adequately follow the teachings of prophet Muhammad. There name in Arabic literally means "those who went out."

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:49AM: ian: What was their political and social impact on the emerging society?

khassa Khassa, from خاص, (literally, special) was the elite class within Islamic civilizations. This group rose to prominence during the Abbasid caliphate, and became a major generator of new forms of culture, behavior, and style. The Khassa is also the social circle in which more limited social practices occurred (such as female seclusion, or the Harem, consumption of alcohol, and artistic patronage of poetry and music). Particularly for the highest of this circle (the Caliphs), the level of consumption was incredibly high, as moveable, luxury furnishings were a display of wealth instead of particularly well-defined architecture.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:14AM: ian: Had the Muslim world become Persian in its taste for luxury and sense of class?

Katama Berbers • the social organization of the Katama Berbers had been tribal from the earliest known period of their history, they were the largest of the Berber tribes. • The word Berber describes any of the descendants of the pre-Arab inhabitants of North Africa. It is derived from Latin barbari, an equivalent to the English barbarian • the Berbers of Katama embraced Ismailism, a large sect of Shi’ism, and played a prominent role in the foundation of the Fatimid Caliphate in Maghrib • It was a common Fatimid policy to recruit loyal Berber tribes to their regular standing army • The Fatimid Imam al-Muizz (the 14th Imam 4th Fatimid Caliph - 341 A.H. - 365 A.H.), was able to rally the Katama tribe under the capable leadership of general Jawhar for impending expedition against Egypt. Al-Muʿizz appointed the Berber chief Buluggīn, son of the Fātimids’ chief ally in Algeria, Zīrī ibn Manād, as his viceroy in the Maghrib.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:16AM: ian: Why is it that these new players in Muslim politics seem so reliant on these outside groups? What has happened to the Arabs? Khazneh of Petra The treasury of the city of Petra. Far more importantly, this is the site in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade where the grail is hidden.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:17AM: ian: In this forum I think we should be respectful and refer to him as Dr. Jones - he was a professor after all.

Kilwa Kilwa, an island settlement off the coast of East Africa and part of present-day Tanzania, was a sultanate founded in the eleventh century by a Persian prince named Ali ibn al-Hassan. Its sultan from 1310 to 1333, al-Hasan ibn Sulaiman (a member of the Mahdali Dynasty), built a large palace and extended the Great Mosque of Kilwa. Ibn Battuta, who visited the court in 1331, spoke very highly of the sultan as a humble, generous and pious ruler. As one of the many places Ibn Battuta visited, Kilwa illustrates the diversity and vastness of the Muslim world by the fourteenth century.

Posted at May 05/2009 08:17PM: mstubbe: Kilwa was an important trading center because it was able to access both the Indian Ocean trade routes and the interior of Africa. It was briefly taken over by Vasco de Gama in the 16th century, and although it was reconquered by Arabs, it lost significance as a trade center.

Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem was founded as the result of the First Crusade. The Crusaders, after conquering many territories, united their diverse holdings under this title. Clearly the acquisition of the Holy Land during these crusades would be a crowning achievement, and Jerusalem formed the capital of this kingdom. While there was certainly European influence and ties back to the kingdoms of Europe did exist, the kingdom was not nearly as strong as those to which it held significant connections. Salah al-Din, commonly known in the west as Saladin, was responsible for recapturing Jerusalem in 1187, and into the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the kingdom experienced a slow decline. After Jerusalem was captured, the capital was moved to Acre, and when this city finally fell in 1291 one could say the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem had finally ended. The Mamluks defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut and consequently were able to take Acre soon after. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem thus represents both the Crusades and the ability of the Muslims to rid the Middle East of their presence

Muhajjirun Literally ‘Emigrants’, the Muhajjirun were the Meccans who accompanied Muhammad on the hijra (to Medina). Due to their early conversion to Islam, close affiliation with the Prophet, and their ties to Meccan society the Muhajjirun enjoyed prestige within the early Islamic community and formed the basis of a new elite that was able to exercise tremendous influence during the Rashidun Caliphate (the four Rightly Guided Caliphs were all Muhajjirun). This authority, however, was a source of resentment for the Ansar, who were increasingly marginalized and excluded from power in this period. With the rise of the Umayyad Caliphate the Muhajjirun, too, were to lose significant political capital; the new dynasty showed a preference for familial ties and advantageous tribal alliances that severely reduced the political roles of Mohammad’s early companions and their descendants. As a final note: it is mistaken to conceive of the Muhajjirun as a cohesive, ideologically homogenous unit, or as a political party with a single agenda. Rather they are more accurately understood as a group of individuals, bound by their early association with Mohammad, who often differed in their political allegiances and interpretations of Islam, particularly following the Prophet’s death.

Munafiqun Munafiqun-Known by Muslim sources as the doubters or hypocrites. Many of the Munafiqun were won over and converted to Islam after Muhammad’s success at Badr. Although not all of the Munafiqun converted, the significant victory at Badr silenced them for a time. Some Munafiquin converted nominally prior to the success at Badr, claiming adherence to Islam while actually doubting its tenets.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:51AM: ian: Key issue: indicator of early factionalism within the Muslim community and how the Prophet would deal with it.

Masjid al-Nabi The original mosque, consisting of an enclosed courtyard, constructed by the prophet in Yathrib following the hijra. This was a part of the transformation of the oasis-based tribal community of Yathrib into the urban center of Medina. Later tradition holds that the Masjid al-Nabi was used as a residence by the prophet during his administration from Medina, but this is not supported archaeologically. Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:52AM: ian: Relationship to the notion of a haram. Later would emerge as a key locus for pilgrimage given the inclusion fo the prophet's tomb within its Umayyad period expansion

Mawla (pl mawali Converts, mostly Persian-speaking, adopted into Arab tribes. The status of the mawal’i created friction in the empire because the laws of taxation required that converts be taxed as non-Muslims. Under the Umayyad caliph ‘Umar, the tax laws for the mawal’i were reformed so that they would continue to pay the kharaj, land tax, but not the jizya, poll tax.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:53AM: ian: What role did they play as a political faction in the Umayyad period?

misr (pl. amsar) Amsar were military camp cities built in the newly conquered territories under Muslim authority. The sections of these cities were divided among the different tribal regiments. The cities often became large Islamic metropolises and served as militaristic bases and administrative centers for collecting taxes. The misr Fustat, for example, became the capital of Egypt and later grew into modern-day Cairo. Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:54AM: ian: One key feature was that they sought to separate Muslim settlers from the local inhabitants of the conquered areas. This, however, did not happen in Syria

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:54AM: ian: Often looked to as the basis for an emergin islamic urbanism.

Mu'awiya bin Abi Sufyan (of the Banu Umayya, an elite clan of the Quraysh). A convert to Islam with the retaking of Mecca by the Medinan forces. Died 680. Mu'awiya's brother, Yazid bin Abi Sufyan, was appointed governor of Syria by 'Umar, a position succeeded by Mu'awiya upon his brother's death without controversy. During 'Ali's removal of 'Uthman's political appointees following his victory at the Battle of the Camel, he attempted to force Mu'awiya to resign as well. However, unlike other appointees, Mu'awiya's power in Syria had been built for a long time. In addition, as a member of the Banu Umayya, 'Uthman's murder furnished Mu'awiya with the need to avenge his relative. As a result, Mu'awiya failed to acknowledge 'Ali's right to the Caliphate until he provided recompense for the death of 'Uthman. This lead to a drawn-out, relatively-non-violent conflict between Mu'awiya's Syrian forces and 'Ali's newly-acquired Iraqi forces during the spring/summer of 657 CE at Siffin (near Raqqa), ended by the Syrian forces holding up Qur'anic leaves, and the Iraqi forces accepting to go into arbitration. The two sides came to the arbitration from equal power stances, weakening 'Ali's position by abandoning his right as "Amir al-mu'aminin," which began to break apart his support (including the Qurra' who felt he had forfeited his natural rights as Caliph). In the meanwhile, Mu'awiya began to suggest new names for Caliph in the arbitration, eventually including his own. Following 'Ali's assassination in 661 CE, Mu'awiya quickly succeeded in occupying the Caliphate. As Caliph, Mu'awiya quickly worked to consolidate loyalties to the centralized government, mostly through coalition building with important factions. This resulted in less of a centralized state apparatus then a confederation of influential figures who had acknowledged Mu'awiya's superiority. His government did not contain many members of his own family, the Banu Umayya. Mu'awiya's Iraqi policy was eventually delegated to Ziyad bin Abihi (later adopted as bin Abi Sufyan, Mu'awiya's half-brother), a former supporter of 'Ali who, after being reconciled with Mu'awiya was named the governor of Basra, then eventually of all Iraq. Mu'awiya did little during his reign to centralize and standardize power or administration, which mostly continued in its pre-existent loyalties and apparatuses. Mu'awiya's determination to have himself succeeded by his son, Yazid, was controversial, but by the time of his death, the opposition was silenced either by threats or bribes, and Yazid took office (although not without his own trials).

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:56AM: ian: Key points: founder of Umayyad dynasty, expansion and consolidation of territory, shifting basis of support to Syrian tribes, emergence of a 'dawla'

Al-Mu'tasim was the 8th caliph of the Abbasid dynasty. His reign marked a key turning point in Abbasid politics and military. Before he became caliph, he had essentially established his own personal army of Turkish slave soldiers. Once he became caliph, he used this military support as the backbone of his power. However, in doing this, he supplanted the old military elite of Khurasan, that had brought the Abbasid dynasty to power. The new military elite that came from the fringes of the empire was culturally divorced from the rest of the population. He also abandoned Baghdad as the capital and built Samarra. This allowed him to escape the conflicts between the old and new military powers in Baghdad. Al-Mu'tasim was also finally able to consistently collect taxes from all areas of the empire. Al-Mu'tasim's brother, the previous caliph, had adopted the title imam, indicating a claim to religious authority. He also adopted the position of Mu'tazilism, which claim that the Qur'an was created and thus it could be modified to fit the times. Al-Mu'tasim continued these policies and positions and Mu'tazilism was adopted as the position of the Samarra elite.

al-Mutawwakil The successor to al-Mu'tasim in the Middle 'Abbasid Caliphate. His rule was one of relative peace, with the Tahirid family maintaining control in Baghdad and the East and the Turkish army being used to suppress discontent in the West and the Caucasus. Al-Mutawwakil began to fear the growing influence of the Turkish army in the caliphate, and sought unsuccessfully to move the caliphate to Damascus in an attempt to distance the government from the military. He instead built a new city adjacent to Samarra, but was unable to successfully reduce the Turks' influence. Turkish army officers, fearing for their positions with the caliphate, murdered al-Mutawwakil in December 861. Following his death, the caliphate entered a decade-long period of anarchy that would only be resolved with the accession of Abu Ahmad al-Muwaffaq and his brother, al-Mu'tamid, in 870. Al-Mutawwakil was one of the great patrons of Abbasid architecture, building over 20 palaces. He is best known for the construction of the Great Mosque of Samarra, which was the largest mosque in the world at the time of its construction.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:21AM: ian: Nt the immediate successor (preceded by al-Wathiq) - but this all looks complete

al-Muqaddisi al-Muqaddisi was a notable Arab geographer in the late 900s. He was a man of great education and made a pilgrimage to Mecca at a very young age. When he was older he traveled around the Muslim world writing down his observations. His work gave people ideas of what far away lands were like that they might not be able to visit on their own. Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:22AM: ian: Was important in giving a systematic view of the urban systems that both recognized the regionalism but larger unity of the Muslim world at the time. How does this kind of knowledge fit with the other emerging disciplines we have discussed. Mihna JRG: The mihna, which lasted from 833-848, occurred when the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun tried to impose his theological views on his subjects by forcing them to acknowledge the doctrine of the createdness of the Quran. Those who refused faced major consequences. The issue of the createdness of the Quran had many political implications: if the Quran was not co-eteranal, then the ruler coud interpret/change certain aspects of what it taught. The mihna was discontinued after the caliph's death. Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:23AM: ian: See Mu'tazilites.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:24AM: ian: It also was a major spur to the forces of tradition (i.e. the sunna) and was central to the later formulation of what would become sunnism.

Mu’tazilites - theological school of thought within Sunni Islam - usually not accepted by other Sunni Muslims, though some of their theology parallels Shi'a Islam, such as their belief in the indivinity of the Qur'an - The name Mu'tazili is thought to originate from the Arabic root إعتزل (iʿtazala) meaning "to leave", "to withdraw". - originated in the 8th century in Basra (Iraq) when Wasil ibn Ata (d. 131 A.H./748 A.D.) left the teaching lessons of al-Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute regarding the issue of Al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn - Mu'tazili tenets focus on the Five Principles: Divine Unity, Divine Justice, Promise and Threat, the intermediate position, and advocating the good and forbidding the evil.

Mahdiyya Mahdiyya was an Ismaili community in North Africa (current-day Tunisia). The Fatimid caliphate was established in this port town, as the Fatimids experienced missionizing success in North Africa, and they sought to gain control over the Maghrib from Mahdiyya. However, they were looking to Egypt to permanently establish their dynasty. The town is named after the mahdi, or the redeemer of Islam who will return before the Day of Judgment. The Fatimid caliphate was founded in 909 by Ubayd Allah, who laid claim to the Ismaili Imamate, or the position of the person who would rule the community in the place of the mahdi.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:25AM: ian: Tunisia as we see in the Geniza docs was one of the major trading partners with Fatimid Egypt. These ties survived if not politically, then economically. Maimonides Maimonides are the followers influenced by Rabbi Moses be Maimon who was a rabbi, physician, and social in Spain, Morocco, and Egypt during the 12th Century. Although his scholarly teachings have been most profoundly influential in Rabbinical scholarship, they also have had an impact on the non-Jewish world. Many aspects of Maimon's ideology remain highly controversial and are often categorized as apostasy by many leaders of all the monotheistic traditions. Maimon argued that it was impossible that truths arrived at by human intellect, such as through philosophy and science, could contradict what God intended to reveal. Most controversial was Maimon's preaching of a negative theology, which argues that the only real statements that can be made about God are negative statements. Maimonides also believe that God can only be understood in-terms of plurality thus rejecting the "oneness of God."

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:27AM: ian: Focus here is on the scholar himself. Symbol of the intellectual climate emerging from al-Andalus but that it was able to travel and influence widely across religious groups.

Mahdi In Shi‘i eschatology (specifically Isma‘ili and Imami), the Mahdi, “the rightly guided one”, is the restorer of religion and justice who will rule on earth before the end of the world. This concept is related to the theory of the imamate: it is said that the disappearance of the last legitimate Imam (this differs among Isma‘ilis and Imamis) is only temporary and he will return at the end of the world. This period of hiding is known as the ghabar (occultation). Starting in the 13th century CE and in the absence of a legitimate Imam, Shi‘i religious scholars (ulema) began to employ reasoning (itijihad) in accordance with the Qur’an and Sunna in order to provide religious leadership for Shi‘a communities. This notion of the Mahdi is not found in the Qur’an or Sunna, but was developed after the death of Mu‘awiyah, the first Umayyad Caliph, when al-Muhktar named al-Hanafiyya (a son of ‘Ali) the Mahdi in Kufa. Following the deaths / disappearances of certain imams – for Islma’ilis, the seventh, and for Imamis, the twelfth – the concept was further crystallized. While the term Mahdi in this sense has not been exclusively employed by Shi’is or proto-Shi’is (for example the first Abbasid caliph, al-Saffah, was referred to as Mahdi) it is a doctrine that is particular to certain sects of Shi‘ism. Several figures notably in Fatimid Egypt (but also in Sudan and Nigeria during the modern era) would also assume the title of Mahdi and claim to be the returned imam.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:28AM: ian: This notion would be one that al-Ghazali would be particularly critical. Recal his saying that all their time is spent seeking the master but never learning from him.

Madrasa It translates to a place where learning/teaching is done. There are generally two courses of study offered, those being the memorization of the Qur’an and a course allowing the student to become a scholar in the community, both having the goals of providing education and training. One would learn Arabic, Qur’anic interpretation, Islamic law, the Hadith, lociq, and Muslim history. Some offered more advanced courses in subjects such as literature, foreign language, sciences, and world history. Many students then became imams. The origins of these schools can be seen in gatherings at mosques to discuss religious knowledge with more learned individuals. The first official academic institution was the Madrasa Nizamiyyah during the late Abbasid period. Al- Mulk was responsible for creating a system of state madrasas.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:29AM: ian: Likely there were examples of the madrasa prior to N al-M but he has been given credit for making it official and widespread.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:29AM: ian: Recall its particular role in the Sunni revival.

Mansa Musa (1312-1337) -famous ruler (kankan) of the Kingdom of Mali (ruled 1307-1337); chiefly known for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324; grand entrance into Cairo with his caravan of 500 slaves and 80–100 camels carrying gold; returned with the Andalusian poet-architect Es-Saheli , who built the palace and Great Mosque of Timbuktu; expanded the commerce and prosperity of Mali, and patron of Islamic scholarship, culture, and art; example of Islamic leadership and wealth in West Africa and their widespread reputation

Negus of Abyssinia The Christian king of Abyssinia, a kingdom located in present-day Ethiopia. After the Quraysh began to persecute the Muslim converts in Mecca, many muslims fled to Abyssinia to seek protection and to live in peace. They were offered protection by Negus even after the Quraysh came to "reclaim" their kinsmen. I believe it is important to understand that Negus found the muslim converts to be more like his people, in that they believed in one God, and unlike their "kinsmen" who had not yet began to believe in God. Negus later converts to Islam, becoming a follower of Prophet Muhammad.

Nizam al-Mulk Seljuk vizir. Major political power player. Persian in a Turk dominated world.

Omar Khayyam Omar Khayyam (1048-1123) was a Persian mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and poet from Nishipur who worked in the court of Suljuk Sultan Malik Shah I. He introduced reforms to the Persian calendar and made significant contributions to the development of algebra. However, he is best known for his poetry, which was discovered by the West when Edward FitzGerald (1809-1883) translated and adapted a small number of his rubaiyyat, which quickly became famous. Today, he is considered one of the premier Persian poets of his era and is frequently mentioned in literature. For example, he was the main character in Amin Maalouf’s historical novel “Samarkand.”

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:31AM: ian: What kind of model does he offer of the medieval intellectual?

Princess Shireen Princess Shireen is a character in Amin Maalouf's book Samarkand. She is a 19th-century Persian princess, who discovered the lost text and fell in love with an American scholar. Travelling back to America, they lose the manuscript in the sinking of the Titanic.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:32AM: ian: What is her significance? Think issues of gender, Iranian nationalism, role of memory and cultural heritage - in essence is she more than just the love story catalyst?

Quraysh the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of the religion of Islam. It was the tribe to which the Islamic Prophet Muhammad belonged, as well as the tribe that led the initial opposition to his message.

Qays/Mudar and Yaman The rivalry and power struggle between these two groups majorly influenced the Umayyad caliphate/dynasty. Allegiances with these groups polarized Arabs throughout the empire, and by the time of Hisham's rule in 724, it was impossible for Muslim leaders to not rely on either faction for support in political or military campaigns. While the Qays and Yaman weren't in themselves political parties, each group held common interests related to military responsibilities, conquest shares, governorships, etc. that fueled their rivalry with each other, a rivalry which later helped open up the door for Iraqi groups to assume power over the empire.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:58AM: ian: Syrian based. Major role in the conquests of the Umayyads.

Qasr Islamic castle, fortress, or palace. The later Ummayad caliphs built large qusur in the deserts of Syria. Some scholars interpret this buildings as indicative of the decadent excess of the caliphs in the periods. Others saw the Umayyad caliphs as seeking a more "authentic" location for their rule, considering the proximity of nomadic Arab tribes. The palaces were designed for large receptions, bringing luxury from the city out into the steppe, and often featured mosques. Some have also argued that the caliphs attempted to build up the agriculture in the area around these palaces.

Qalat Husn - Crak de Chevalier A hilltop military fortress near Hims, Syria, the Qalat al-Husn is the acme of castle evolution, both in the Middle East and generally. Indeed, following Edward I of England's sight of the castle in 1272, he proceeded to model many English and Welsh castles off of it. Built out of pre-existent Byzantine, Kurdish, and Umayyad structures, the Crak de Chevalier was first captured by Raymond IV of Toulouse in 1099, but abandoned as he continued to Jerusalem. In 1110, it was taken by Tancred, Prince of Galilee. In 1142, Raymond II, count of Tripoli gave the structure to the Knights Hospitallers. The renovations by the Hospitallers transformed the Crak de Chevalier into the largest Crusader castle, adding an outer wall and other siege fortifications. The castle was besieged by Nur al-Din in 1163, then by Salah al-Din (Saladin) in 1188, but neither attempt succeeded. Baybars captured the castle in 1271, and subsequently became a Mamluk base against Tripoli. T.E. Lawrence described the castle as "perhaps the best preserved and most wholly admirable castle in the world," and today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:34AM: ian: What does it tell us about the Crusader approach to the landscape of the Holy Land and their forms of colonial settlement? Is this feudalism for the East?

Qaramita The Qaramita were a problematic Shi'i tribe from Bahrayn that sought to undermine the authority of the Abbasid caliphate. They launched many raids on Abbasid territory and are best known for the sacking of the coastal Iraqi city of Basra and the theft of the sacred black stone of the Ka'aba. These events, along with the compromised security of the hajj, diminished the Abbasids' authority as the defenders of Islam. The Qaramita also posed problems for the Fatimid caliphate of Egypt, whose relationship with the rogue tribe was characterized be frequent conflict and occasional alliances. The caliphate did manage to negotiate the return of the sacred black stone to the Ka'aba, however. Additionally, the Fatimids were also able to neutralize the Qaramita threat to Syria through the payment of a large sum.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:35AM: ian: Sectarianism is seemingly an endless problem for establishing cultural and political hegemony.

Quseir al-Qadim was a major Mamluk port in Egypt that facilitated the Indian Ocean trade through the Red Sea to Egypt and the markets of Cairo. Excavations of the site have found merchant documents, textiles, leather wares, and evidence of caravanserai and storage facilities. Quseir al-Qadim thus shows the economic strength of the Indian Ocean trade route. However, by virtue of the lucrative trade coming through Quseir al-Qadim, the Red Sea also became increasingly affected by piracy.

AL-QALA’

Ridda wars • AKA Wars of Apostasy, although there is some debate on whether this was primarily a religious or political movement. • Took place from 632-633 AD, immediately following the death of Muhammad • Begun as campaign against the Arab rebel tribes who refused to pay taxes to the new Caliph Abu Bakr • These wars were both religious and political in nature; through them, Abu Bakr's goal was to establish Islamic rule over all of Arabia • In areas of insurrection, rebels rallied around other people who claimed to be prophets • The campaign established the existence of a new "Muslim religious community"; In pre-islamic practice, after the death of a tribal leader, alliance with the leader's tribe was over. Bakr said that in contrast to pre-islamic times, tribal allegiance to the Muslim community had not ended at all. • Major battles were in Nejd, Bahrain, Oman, Mahrah, Yemen, Hadramawt • Led to the eventual Muslim expansion into the remnants of Sassanid Persian empire + the fringes of the Byzantine empire

RIBAT A defensive structure established on the fringes of conquered Muslim territories. Ribats were garrisoned with murabitun, or military volunteers, and provided a safe structure to guard against attacks, especially in Northern Africa. Building a ribat was seen as a pious activity, and garrisoning the ribat was also seen as a righteous act. A ribat also gave shelter to the surrounding population during an enemy attack. However, a ribat is unlike a fort in that it served a religious purpose. It was a center in which information about Islam was disseminated to the surrounding lands, and later it housed Islamic scholars traveling through the Islamic world.

Risala of Imam al-Shafi'i This was written in the second century of the Muslim calendar. However, its influence is still around today. It spells our Islamic jurisprudence according to the Sunnis. This gives people interested in understanding jurisprudence a source in which to study from.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:36AM: ian: Foundational text in the rules of jurisprudence. It has been seen as systematic account of the classic four sources theory (quran, hadith, ijma'a (consensus) and qiyas (analogy). This has been critiqued as a somewhat anachronistic reading.

Rumi

• AKA Mawlānā Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Balkhī or Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī

• was a 13th-century Persian[2][3] poet, Islamic jurist, theologian, and mystic

• his is a descriptive name meaning "the Roman" since he lived most of his life in an area called Rūm because it was once ruled by the Byzantine Empire

• Rumi's family traveled west, first performing the Hajj and eventually settling in the Anatolian city Konya (capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, now located in Turkey). This was where he lived most of his life, and here he composed one of the crowning glories of Persian literature which profoundly affected the culture of the area

• Following his death, his followers and his son Sultan Walad founded the Mawlawīyah Sufi Order, also known as the Order of the Whirling Dervishes, famous for its Sufi dance known as the samāʿ ceremony.

• A Persian literary renaissance (in the 8th/9th century) started in regions of Sistan, Khorāsān and Transoxiana and by the 10th/11th century, it reinforced the Persian language as the preferred literary and cultural language in the Persian Islamic world.

Sunna

Sunna refers to the way in which the Prophet lived, the examples he set, the path he walked. For example, the way in which Muhammad prayed is part of the sunna, and Muslims should follow his example. Also included are things the Prophet might have approved of in others and things he himself had wished to do. The knowledge of these practices of Muhammad is deemed sunna, and they can form a guide of sorts for later Muslims on how best to live. It will play a role in the development of Islamic jurisprudence. Posted at Feb 19/2009 10:59AM: ian: Knowledge of the sunna is communication largely through the hadith. Sunna is essentially a category of revelation in the Muslim tradition and is seen as a lens through which Muslims can interpret the Quran. Sira The sira are the prophetic biographies. They are not contemporary with Muhammad's life, rather they are 9th century or later accounts. Together with the hadith, these accounts provide the basis for the sunna. They particularly provide information on Muhammed's life and the early days of Islam. The earliest surviving biography was written by Ibn Ishaq, nearly 150 after Muhammed's death.

Sahaba Literally translated as the “Companions”, this term is used in reference to individuals who knew the Prophet Muhammad during his lifetime and such, were vital in the early development of Islamic tradition. The role of these Companions (as scholars of hadith) was paramount in that, due to their close relationship to the Prophet, they were responsible for relating information about the manner in which the Prophet lived to the masses. Although this term does not only apply to the earliest converts to Islam, individuals identified as Companions were particularly valuable moral authorities in the contentious periods of expansion campaigns.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 11:02AM: ian: Later there would be a split between sunni and shia over the issue of the probity of the Sahaba as sources on which to develop Islamic law through their transmission of the prophetic sunna through their own actions.

Segmentary Lineage theory A model of social organization proposed by the functionalist theory of E. E. Evans-Pritchard. This theory holds that, because the state does not exist in a tribal society, the tribesman must rely on other persons or structures in times of trouble because he cannot depend on an authority to ensure the rights and well-being of the tribesmen. During crises such as droughts or external threats, the tribe will subdivide into smaller groups on the basis of genealogical ties. Steven Caton explains how this theory relates to the concept of honor in Arabian tribal societies. Feuds actually unify groups against one another because they are so concerned with preserving their honor. The groups continue to appeal to higher-level persons to match their adversaries, and the dispute eventually ends because the groups are at a draw. Thus, tribal order is maintained. This theory, of course, assumes the principle of balanced opposition, or that lineal groups are equal in size and strength; in fact, this is rarely the case in these societies because of demographic, ecological, and economic variables (See pages 9-11 in Caton reading for further explanation).

Sesanian Empire Andrea Richardson: The Sasanian Empire was the last pre-Islamic Iranian Empire and one of the two super-powers of Western Asia during late-antiquity. The Sasainian Empire lasted for more than 400 years and eventually fell to the Arab Caliphate. It is considered by many to be one of the most important and influential periods of Persian civilization. Its art, culture, and institutions had a profound impact on the Islamic world after Muslim conquest. It is also important to note that the Sasanian Empire completely folds during the Islamic conquest whereas the Byzantine empire, the other super-power, does not.

Sabiqa Precedence in Islam, i.e. how early one converted. According to Kennedy, early Islamic leadership was determined by religious excellence, which was defined by closeness to the Prophet as well as sabiqa (Kennedy, 47). As such, those with sabiqa were chosen as the first Muslim rulers (the Rashidun Caliphs) while the earliest converts – in reality, this usually meant the Muhajjirun – were generally granted a privileged status. For example, the Second Caliph ‘Umar, himself an early follower of Muhammad, offered the earliest converts many of the most prestigious government posts in addition to distributing the diwan proportionally according to sabiqa.

shari'a Sharia, which means path, is the full body of Islamic law regulating everything from religious devotion to economic interactions. It developed and changed throughout Islamic history. Sharia law governed all aspects of classical Islamic civilization.

Siraf was an ancient Sassanid port located on the north shore of the Persian Gulf in present-day Iran. The Persian Gulf was used as an important shipping route between the Arabian peninsula and the Far East in the years before Islam and in the first several centuries of Islam; the port was destroyed in 970. Excavations in Siraf of objects from places like Africa, India and Afghanistan suggest this port's significance in intercontinental trade, which continued with the rise of the Islamic world.

Sayf al-Dawla was the founder of the Hamdanid dynasty of Aleppo who took over the region in 944. The territory under his control stretched throughout central Syria from Homs to Aleppo to the eastern part of the Jazira. The support of the leading Banu Kilab bedouin tribe enabled Sayf al-Dawla to gain power, but he struggled to maintain alliances with the bedouin tribes in the early years of his reign. He was seen as a champion of Islam against the Byzantine empire by demonstrating a strong commitment to jihad in his attacks on Byzantine holdings. However, he had very limited resources and therefore did not see much success on the Byzantine front. The end of his reign was plagued by rebellions against the failing government, and he left Aleppo for Mayyafariqin where he died in 967.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:38AM: ian: A good example of the more regional 10th century ruler able to carve out a sphere of influence among the bigger fish.

Saladin (Salah ad-Din) was a Kurdish Muslim born in Iraq who rose to supreme political and military prominence during the 12th Century. He is dearly remembered in the modern Islamic world and in Islamic history as the military leader who retook the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the Muslim world during the 3rd wave of the Christian crusades. His most famous military battle was the Battle of Hattin, in which he formally retook Jerusalem from the Christian Crusaders. He was also remembered as respected by many Christian lords for his courage and kindness. Politically, he is remembered as the founder of the Ayyudid dynasty leading him to become the Sultan of Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Hejaz, and Yemen. Saladin is prominently remembered as a great hero in modern Muslim society.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:38AM: ian: Looks good.

Seljuks The Seljuks were a Turkish dynasty founded by Tugrul Beg in 1037 CE that ruled over a vast landscape stretching from Central Asia through Persia, Syria, the Hijaz and Anatolia. This dynasty ruled either directly or indirectly through vassals from the 11th to the 14th centuries CE and installed themselves in a few main principalities including Rum, Syria, and Kerman. The Seljuks were the target of the early crusades. Eventually, the Seljuks became vassals of the Mongols after their invasion in the mid 13th century CE and Anatolia was fragmented into beyliks or emirates. Eventually, the Ottoman Empire would emerge out of one of these beyliks. The Seljuks were able to introduce social and political stability to their conquered territories through institution building, worked to revitalize Sunni Islam, and furthermore patronized the arts and intellectual culture. Although the Seljuks were Turkish, much of their emerging cultural forms were Persian influenced. Anatolia, formerly a hinterland of the Islamic world, was developed under the Seljuks as they introduced new forms of imperial architecture and style and embarked on expansive building projects. Kulliye, or complexes built around a mosque, were constructed and included such buildings as hospitals (mustashfa) and schools (madrasa). Nizam al-Mulk, the wazir of the first Seljuk ruler of Baghdad developed this latter institution. Also, in the 13th century CE and in the wake of the Mongol conquests, the Silk Road reemerged as an important trade route and the Seljuks began trading with the Genoese after the evacuation of the crusaders. In terms of religion, orthodox Sunni Islam was emphasized and further developed, especially around the Hanbali School of jurisprudence. Sufism also flourished in this period. Notable intellectuals from the Seljuk Dynasty include the Omar Khayyam (the protagonist of Samarkand), the Orthodox Sunni theologian al-Ghazali, and the Sufi poet Rumi.

thughur and awasim The term thughur generally refers to the external frontiers of Islam. It also refers, more specifically, to the Arab-Byzantine frontier that extended from Tarsus in Cilicia north-eastward as far as Erzurum was divided into two sub-districts. Behind its elongated front-line district was a second-line district, a compact piece of territory that contained the strongholds known as awasim (or, 'the protectresses') so called because warriors would seek refuge in them after raids or when under attack. The awasim were a buffer zone between northern Syrai and the Cilician Thughur.

Taifa kingdoms These were independently ruled Muslim principalities, many of which were formed in 1031after the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba. These arose from the ethnic division of the elites in the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba as well as the administrative division. The most famous of the Taifa kingdoms were in Al-Andalus and Seville. The height of the Taifa kingdoms were in the 11th century and in the mid 12th (when the Almoravid rulers were in decline). There was competition amongst the Taifa kingdoms for cultural prestige and therefore these areas saw an influx of talented artistic and literary figures.

Tawhid Tawhid concerns the "oneness" of God in Islam. By this it is meant that God is universal, absolute, and indivisible. God will have no other form, associate, or manifestation, and no divinity exists except with God. This doctrine will provoke questions about the essence and attributes of God throughout the history of Islam, and the case of the Sufis provides an excellent example. The Sufis, including the poet Rumi who explores the concept of tawhid in his writings, believe that knowledge about God can only be obtained through experience while most other Muslim scholars turn to theology for a more complete understanding of God.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:39AM: ian: Nothing to add here.

Umma The umma is the community of believers. The notion of umma is first discussed when talking about the population of Medina, specifically the umma versus the surrounding pagan society. The bond between members of the umma “transcends any bonds or agreements between them and the pagans and they are all to seek revenge if any Muslim is killed fighting ‘in the way of God.’” The interactions of the various cultures composing the umma, facilitated by translators, helped the Muslim world become the greatest knowledge centers in the world. Eventually, however, the diversity that had once supported new growth and prosperity in Muslim lands began to undermine the unity of the umma as different nationalities began putting their own needs ahead of that of the collective.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 11:04AM: ian: Keep in mind the relationship of the concept of umma to the concept of the tribe.

umran 'umran is a term used by Khaldun that can be translated as "civilization", the ability of people to overcome their aggressive, animal nature through social organization and group solidarity.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 11:05AM: ian: Does umran rest with the tribe or the dawla? What does this mean for the emergence of an Islamic polity and the processes that lead to the kind of society that develops?

Umayyad Mosque of Damascus Previously a temple to Jupiter and later a Christian church containing the body of John the Baptist, the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus has a long and storied history. The conquest of Damascus by the Muslims in 636 initially presented no problems for the church since the Muslims merely attached a mosque to it; however, in the Umayyad era the Muslims began to transform the church into a mosque. With the help of Byzantine craftsmen they transformed the church into a mosque, based on the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina, worthy of the new capital of the Umayyad caliphate.

Ulema Scholars - what was the deal with the formulation of this class of folks? What was their relationship to the state? What forms of power did they wield? Think about the desire for independence but of the material benefits that came with institutions like the qadi and the madrasa.

Venetiam ducat The Venetian ducat was the gold coin used for much of the Mediterranean trade. It became the gold standard of the Islamic empire after the fall of the Fatimid dynasty, and signifies the re-emergence of Mediterranean trade and the growing importance of the European economy beginning in the 13th century.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:42AM: ian: THe Mamluks especially the later Mamluks had a hard time keeping specie for a functioning currency that would eventually constrain the Egyptian economy.

waqf (pl awqaf) Waqf is a Muslim legal term referring to an institution or foundation that someone could not have property rights over. These foundations often served charitable purposes and aimed to please God. Each chapter had its own goals and purposes. Awqaf could serve to poor or provide monetary support to mosques, schools (salaries at the mandrasa), hospitals, the community, etc. Some supported pilgrimages to Mecca or Medina.

wazir The office of the wazir (or vizier, plural wuzara') first emerged during the Abbasid Caliphate, modeled after earlier Sasanian/Persianate models. The wazir came to represent the height of the bureaucracy as it emerged as a distinct office from the kuttab. The wazir was often responsible for much of governance as official rulers became increasingly removed from, or distinct from, the populations they ruled (e.g. Nizam al-Mulk, the wazir to the Seljuk Malik Shah, was a native Persian), but were also still an easy target for court intrigue and scapegoating.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:43AM: ian: See Nizam al-Mulk as an example - but it would take place in both Sunni and Shii regimes. Usually the wazir was from a different ethnic group than the ruling party. What does that seem to tell us?

x (as in the algebraic variable) The development of the algebraic variable 'x' is attributed to the great poet and scholar Oman Khayyam, whose life we saw depicted in Amin Maalouf's novel, Samarkand. The importance of algebra (derived from the Arabic 'al-jabr') to our lives today is yet another example of how Islamic scholarship has greatly contributed to the development of Western civilization, and such contributions question the validity of the 'clash of civilizations' thesis we have talked about in our course.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:45AM: ian: The etymologyis from the arabic word shay' (thing) which in Spanish was transliterated with an "x" and hence entered into european mathematics.

Yathrib Present-day Medina, this settlement was the site of considerable tension between tribes, particularly the Aws and Khazraj. In pre-Islamic times, Yathrib was also home to a large population of Jewish tribes. Because of these tensions, tribal leaders invited the Prophet Muhammad to come to Yathrib and lead the community, which he did in the hijra of 622.

Posted at Feb 19/2009 11:07AM: ian: yathrib is only developed into a haram after the arrival of the Prophet Muhammad. there may be some confusion here with Mecca. It was in many ways a rather dispersed tribal settlement that had significant tensions among the groups (esp Aws and Khazraj).

Zengids The Zengid dynasty (1127 – 1251 AD) started as Seljuk regents in the areas of Syria and Jazira. It was founded by Imad ed-Din Zengi, who was the governor of Mosul in 1127. Under the Zengids the Sunni sect’s beliefs and customs were re-established in Aleppo, Damascus, and Egypt. Established the first dar al-Hadith, which included the most well-known hadiths; up until that point the Shia had relied only on hadiths from ahl al-Bayt. Places for Sufi worship were also established under the Zengids. Establish sunni schools and staffed them with prominent sunni scholars. Under the Zengids, orphanages were established and were run on “awqaf”, or charitable donations. In these orphanages children were taught and “scholars” were graduated.

Posted at Apr 12/2009 09:45AM: ian: They formed the first real dynastic threat to the Crusaders.