The Imperial Fora (pictured above), which we will be discussing Friday, are additions to the Forum Romanum made by some Roman emperors.
Why would the emperors build these? If you were emperor, what kinds of additions would you make to the fora? Mussolini lead a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali, among other sites. Why would he want do that?
Posted at Mar 16/2011 03:12PM:
rmckeown: The Roman emperors had several different specific reasons for building their own Fora, but they all were built with the intention to gain the public support for the Emperor and his reign. For example, Julius Caesar built his forum, and subsequently restructured the Roman Forum, in order to utilize the public arena of the Forum to display the great power, successfulness, dominance, and affluence of him and his family, thereby gaining the respect and admiration of the Roman people who traversed through it. In the same respect, Augustus built his forum in order to celebrate himself and the legacy of the Julian line. In order to follow in the footsteps of Julius Caesar, Augustus attached his forum to that of his adoptive father and added a temple to Mars Ultor to celebrate the avenging of Caesar’s assassination at the battle of Philippi and statues of members of his family with mythological figures from the founding of Rome, the statues of great men. Unlike Caesar, however, Augustus placed several victory shields, or clipeus virtutus, stating that the forum was built by the senate and people of Rome and displaying how Augustus was not a tyrant but “first among equals,” an obvious display of Augustus’s learning from the mistakes of Julius Caesar. The same trends of other emperors can be seen in their individual Fora; each of the Imperial Fora was a place for the Roman people to gather and engage in public life while simultaneously honoring the emperor that built it.
If I were the emperor, I would make a forum filled with grand architectural and artistic structures that would both evoke my and my familial power and affluence as well as serve a functional purpose for the people who congregated there. I would have ornate buildings with grand architectural designs line the forum as well as statues of my family members and myself. I would fill the large open space in the middle of my forum with gardens and trees and fountains and a lake for public use, like that of a modern day park. This would allow the people who gathered there to engage in their own sense of otium and tryphe as well as escape the crowded bustling urban atmosphere that surrounded them. The people would definitely frequent this refuge and praise me for creating this paradise for them in the middle of Rome……ahh I can hear it now “Ave Imperator Ryan.”
Mussolini’s great efforts to excavate the Fori Imperiali were performed for the same reason as the ancient emperors who built them—to gain the support of the people and profess his dominance as the sole leader of his nation. By uncovering these national treasures, Mussolini was able to obtain the support of his people (at least until the end of the war) in the same manner as the great emperors of the Roman Empire. This effort to resurrect the great superpower that Rome used to be was acknowledged by the Italian people, and as a result, Mussolini’s image as a leader was greatly strengthened by the support of his people.
Posted at Mar 16/2011 04:00PM:
tborden: The forum was a central hub of political discussion as well as a symbol of power and authority, so the construction of newer and larger elements in this area represents an attempt to display the builder's dominance over Roman politics and society, just as the building itself physically dominates the Forum Romanum. The guiding principle behind commissioning new forum elements is comparable to the concept of corporate sponsorship of a public venue of some sort: as people go about their business in this grand new facility, perhaps they will pause for a moment to reflect on the magnificence of its benefactor. In keeping with this concept, if I were emperor, I would try to add the grandest and most utilitarian public space to the forum, with the hopes that my new facility would be the one in which most of the people would choose to do their business. In modern terms, it would most likely be some sort of shopping mall super center that sought to provide a venue through which almost every consumer's needs could be met. The more people that I can get to frequent my newest public work, the larger audience there is for my shameless self-promotional propaganda, and the more the people are exposed to this message, the stronger and more stable my power base becomes.
Mussolini styled himself as emperor of a new, modern-day revival of the ancient Roman empire. What better way to cement this image than to bring any ancient elements of the city he could find out into the public eye? Just as the emperors of Rome sought to have the forum lend authority and admiration to their names, Mussolini endeavored to associate himself with that same symbol of power by unearthing the forum. Since the forum was buried, the act of excavating it ultimately accomplishes the same function as adding to it once did.
Posted at Mar 16/2011 04:30PM:
kloughee: Since the Forum had been a staple of Roman life since the Republic, emperors probably constructed their own personal additions to the Forum Romanum to establish themselves as part of the Roman legacy, and to connect themselves to their more favorably received predecessors. For instance, when Julius Caesar built the Forum Iulium, he adopted the symmetry of regularity of Republica fora to connect himself with the conservative, Senate-centric Rome even though he declared himself dictator perpetuo in 49 BC. By declaring himself dictator for life, Julius Caesar strayed from the traditional Roman office of dictator, which involved the dictator dealing with a crisis and then retiring after a certain amount of time. After straightening out the Roman constitution, Sulla retired to his estate; over a hundred years before that, when Fabius Maximus Cunctator served as dictator during the height of Roman desperation during the Second Punic War, he stepped down after his allotted six months, and maintained power only by letting the people elect him consul.
Caesar deviated dramatically from Republican custom by seizing the dictatorship for life. However, he used the traditional architecture of the Forum Iulium to mask this progression towards the Imperial Age. He also glorified himself and his supposed divine lineage by including a shrine to Venus Genetrix, whom Julius Caesar was supposedly descended from via Aeneas. Although the Temple may have seemed like a pious gesture, it was actually a propaganda tool of Julius Caesar's to promote public faith in their new dictator on account of his divine lineage.
If I were an emperor, I would follow Caesar's example (even though he got stabbed to death) and use the architecture to not only connect myself with the heroes of the past, but also to glorify myself, possibly through the sneaky guise of a temple to a god I associated myself with. Mussolini probably had similar motivations in his excavation of the Fori Imperiali. Through his excavations, he connected himself to Italy's illustrious past while also stirring up nationalism through the people's pride in the past. Julius Caesar might have similarly stirred up people's nationalism by using the Forum Iulium to evoke the traditional architecture and structure of the Republic. Uniting people under a common pride in their heritage, while providing them with a strong leader to rally around, decreases the chance of civil war and unrest.
Posted at Mar 16/2011 09:35PM:
caroline hoffman:
As it has been made clear throughout history, not just through Roman history, building public monuments and buildings is a great way to squelch any sort of political unrest. Not only does building public works deceive the public into believing that these works were made for them, but it subliminally elevates the one who commissions these works to an esteemed status. This is exactly what the Roman Emperors were doing when they made various additions to the Forum Romanum.
Julius Caesar, the first of the Julio Claudian line, began building his in 54 BC. He claimed he was creating more space for the Forum Romanum because it was getting too crowded. In doing so, he was able to elevate his own status as Emperor by dedicating a Temple to Venus Genetrix, the goddess whom he supposedly was a descendant of. More importantly, through amending the Forum Romanum, Caesar destroyed the original curea, Senate House, and placed it along a linear path to his Forum. Through placing the Curea adjacent to his Forum, Caesar underscored his dominance over Roman politics and his role as “dictator perpetuo”.
Augustus, following in his adoptive father’s footsteps, created his own Forum. In his Forum, Augustus dedicated a Temple to Mars Ultor in 2 BC, commemorating Roman victory in the Battle of the Philippi, in which he avenged the assassination of his father. The temple contained three dominating statues: one of Venus, Mars, and that of the deified Caesar. In doing this, Augustus proves himself of being of divine descent while providing the Romans with more social and political space.
Vespasian, first of the Flavian dynasty, built his Temple of Peace for two purposes. The first was to provide a space where the public could view beautiful art, looted from Judea, among other places of Roman conquest. The second purpose was to instill in the Romans a belief that Vespasian had restored peace to the Roman Empire. Vespasian’s Temple of Peace is quite reminiscent of Augustus’s Ara Pacis Augustae.
If I were emperor, I believe I would have followed in a similar manner to that of Vespasian. I would provide for the public in a way that no emperor had before: letting them be privy to the art that was once only viewed by the elite of Rome. Furthermore, I would underscore the fact that through my rule as emperor, I had brought peace to the Romans.
Mussolini had made a huge effort to uncover these Imperial Fora. Through this, Mussolini could distract the people for long enough and earn their support (or at least compliance), by trying to uncover their nation’s great history. Mussolini could disillusion the Italians into thinking that he would bring them such splendors if he could uncover those of the Italian predecessors, those of the Roman Empire.
Posted at Mar 16/2011 10:24PM:
jthomas: Emperor's built forums because of the fame and power it brought them. Each forum had their name attached to it, just as it can be seen during the mid-1st century BC with Pompey building his theater. It was a place that the general public could use and appreciate, and they understood who provided them with it. It would certainly gain that person favor with the people, and considerable power with that. The Fora was at the hub of Rome, and was a place that people would visit. It made it seem that the building was for them, only elevating the status and respect of the emperor.
The best fora is one that draws that most people. The more people, the more your name is recognized, and the more respect you would gain. If I was emperor I would build a space that the people would flock to. I would build a space with architectural detail and statues, perhaps associating myself with a god or another important figure in Roman history to elevate my status. The space itself would give the people access to an open market, where they could exchange ideas and other items. Gatherings could happen there, with numerous places to sit and relax, with verdant areas to help build a more peaceful atmosphere throughout the bustle of normal life.
Mussolini had similar motives to the Roman emperors. Uncovering the fora and other ancient Roman pieces helped to build his reputation and gain respect by the people of Italy and the art world. He was helping to preserve the Italian culture; which most people would appreciate in any country. It helps to unite the culture under this appreciation and pride, all caused by Mussolini.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 12:25AM:
cteitz: The appeal of constructing additional fora was multifaceted for the emperors. First, it connected them with the republican ideals of government, which made their position as supreme ruler seem less extreme, particularly for the early emperors like Julius Caesar and Augustus. Then, it placed them in the public consciousness as only a massive work of architecture and construction project could. The fora dominated the landscape between the Palatine and Capitoline in the primary political public space, and their presence was a constant reminder of who held power. The fora also were a reminder of the emperor’s political agenda, for example the Forum Augustum depicting his and Rome’s greatest ancestors with a temple to Mars Ultor who was responsible for his success in avenging Caesar’s death. These elements cemented his claim to power by proving his lineage and his successes. This contrasts Vespasian’s Forum, which, as a temple of peace, demonstrated the prosperity and calm the empire could have with him as the supreme ruler. Their construction also employed large numbers of people from within the city who would appreciate the emperor who gave them a job.
If I was emperor…there are so many changes I could make, and I don’t think my focus would be on changes and additions to the fora in Rome, rather to building fora across the provinces to cement my influence there and with the legions abroad. However, if I were to make changes in Rome, I would begin by constructing a space that gave the common folk a place for intellectual pursuit, with extensive libraries and spaces for teaching. I would include statuary suggestive of the distinguished history of the Empire, while depicting my own accomplishments in a more subtle frieze surrounding the large central public space. The open space would be both a place for leisurely discussion as well as more important business conversations, since ideally I would build somewhere between the Republican Forum and Vespasian’s Forum.
Mussolini’s efforts to uncover the Imperial Fora were directly tied to his goals of recreating the imperial power of Rome in the rising Italian state. He could use the Imperial Fora as examples of how widely the influence of the empire extended and what great levels of wealth and success it reached. The fora were ready-made propaganda, enormous, beautiful, and very physical reminders of where the Italian state Mussolini was trying to create pulled its roots from. A cultural focus also shifted some of the attention from the monstrous actions he committed in the name of power to the glories he brought for Rome through her history.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 01:40AM:
asung: Emperors would build these additions to the Forum Romanum in order to inscribe their name on a public monument, to broadcast their accomplishments to the largely ignorant Roman society to convince them of their greatness and right in claiming the throne. Because emperors had a precarious, tenuous position as head of the Roman Empire that could quickly be ended by the whims and emotional caprices of his subjects, every ruler had to prove himself to the people, or more specifically the more influential members of society such as the Senate and his armies. Thus, despite all the glory, wealth, and power that emperors attain, they must constantly be aware of potential assassinations or attempts to undermine their rule; for example, Domitian included much reflective black marble in his palace to see people approaching him from behind, and Tiberius built one of his pleasure palaces in Capri on a steep, unreachable cliff. By manipulating art and architecture to portray a certain political message, emperors generally manage to convince their subjects that they are worthy rulers. Augustus did this by completing a temple dedicated to his newly deified father to emphasize how he was a divus filius or the son of a god. Similarly, he built another temple to demonstrate that, due to Caesar’s assassination, he was justified in taking the throne. While Caesar built his forum to glorify himself and his deeds, Vespasian exercised a different method of propaganda, in that in his forum he built the Templum Pacis meant to be a luxury space for the commoners, with glorious artworks, gardens, and libraries able to be used by all. This way of persuading the people of his legitimacy as a ruler by actually proving himself as effective, with the ability to listen to and fulfill the needs and desires of his followers, is also the method that I would take if I were endeavoring to maintain the satisfaction of the Romans. Thus, my addition to the forum would be some civic building that would address some need of the people, may it be some Roman baths, a medical care area, an education center, or simply some libraries and museums. Although I would not be blazing my name and military triumphs into people’s consciousness, I would still be effectively attaching my name to something from which many would be able to benefit.
Perhaps Mussolini was so determined to excavate these fora as well as many other ancient Roman sites because he wanted to give a very visible, ostentatious reminder to his subjects that Italy is and always has been a great, culturally rich nation, seeing as no other area would have such a splendid, intimidating trove of archaeological treasures. By bathing Italy in splendor, and also by connecting himself to such great rulers whose foundations could not be shaken or questioned, Mussolini would establish himself as an untouchable, enduring leader whose reign was justified by his imperial ancestors.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 09:21AM:
jdesrosier: Each emperor had specific messages he fused into his forum, but at least a few overarching themes emerge as the purposes of these Fora: 1. They commemorated and monumentalized their designer (the emperor), and constantly reminded the public who had commissioned the space. The expensive decorations like colored marble or vestiges of Nero’s Golden House awed and inspired, displaying the wealth and prestige of the emperor. 2. They prominently featured temple complexes or associations with the divine [Temple of Venus Genetrix, Forum of Caesar; Temple of Mars Ultor, Forum of Augustus; Temple of Peace, Vespasian; Connection with Minerva, Forum of Nerva]. By adding a temple, the emperor tied himself in more closely with Rome’s heritage, linking himself to a force greater than the average Roman citizen and legitimizing his regime. 3. Fora made otium a public good. These spaces served as public areas for the commons to commune with and enjoy the luxury of Rome’s leading citizens.
If I were emperor, I would draw on elements of each of the fora. The exedra featuring the summi viri and Julian family members from Augustus’ Forum is inspired. I would draw on that concept of blending my lineage with Rome’s with a grand display of traditional figures. Vespasian’s notion of using his forum as a museum-like space with the spoils of war and artwork of Nero’s Golden House is another thoughtful addition. Because military service and politics were so closely linked, it would be good to display my military conquests and the booty I amassed in a public space. From the Forum of Nerva I learned to attempt to fit my forum into whatever space was available. He used engaged columns instead of free-standing columns to save space. Measures like this would probably be necessary given that the Imperial Fora were so large and already took up so much area in the region of the Forum Romanum.
Mussolini wanted to set himself up as a new Augustus. By excavating Rome’s past, he would literally expose that empire of military domination and prosperity. He wanted to inspire the Italians with their ancestors’ greatness. If he could successfully imbue them with the same qualities as the Romans, he could fashion himself as a modern-day emperor.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 11:25AM:
Each emperor had his own motivations for building a forum, but almost all of them used these forums as propaganda pieces to gain support from the populace. These structures were large and highly accessible to the people. Many citizens would travel through and around the forums every day, so they were ideal for demonstrating power and gaining public support. Julius Ceasar built his forum as a forum for public discussion, but it also served as a place to worship him. Included in his forum was a temple, Venus Genetrix, for worship of the goddess Venus. This was a reference to Caesar’s claimed relations to Venus, and thus worshipping her would also be in a sense worshiping Caesar (or worshiping Venus for founding the Julian line). Additionally, his rearrangement of the old forum, and the shear magnitude of the construction was a way in which Caesar demonstrated the power and wealth of himself and his family. When Augustus built his forum he wanted to recall the glory of Caesar and firmly associate himself with the Julian line; for this reason he built his forum right next to Caesar’s fora. Additionally he used Cesar as an excuse to build this great structure which ultimately glorified himself; Augustus had promised to build a temple to Mars in order to thank him for his help in avenging Caesar. Within this structure he had both statues of great men from Rome’s history and statues of himself and his family. In this way, Augustus was trying to blend his own history with that of Rome’s. He was trying to show that he embodied the power of Rome. Augustus was cautious, however, to not repeat Ceasar’s mistake of assuming too much power that ultimately led to his downfall; Included in Augustus’s forum were displays of victory shields, that were supposed to convey the senate’s approval of this structure. He wanted to show that this was not his forum but a forum for all of Rome. Vespasian built his forum close to the others in order to evoke similar emotions about his power in the Roman Empire. His forum, however, was strongly focused on gaining the favor of the Roman people. He focused less on creating a space to glorify himself, and more on creating a place that the public could enjoy. This forum allowed any citizen, especially those who could not afford luxury, to enjoy a large peristyle garden, a museum and a library. Since a huge number of people would pass through the forum everyday, many people would enjoy it, and appreciate Vespasian for his service to Rome.
If I were emperor (empress?), I would also build my forum next to all the fora’s of the emperor’s of old. I would want an ornate building done of mostly marble, probably in a Hellenistic style. Inside the forum itself I would like there to be lots of sunlight. Preferably it would be decorated with statues and paintings, some of which would be of my family and myself. Inside there would be places for people to relax and converse, and there probably would also be a large, grand, public library. The forum would also involve a spacious garden with many water features. Many people would be able to come and enjoy the luxury of my garden, and while they were there relaxing I would be in their thoughts as the wonderful emperor who made this all possible.
Mussolini would want to excavate these forums in order to recall the splendor of Italy in antiquity. He would use this to show that Italy was a powerful nation with a rich cultural history. Additionally, he would want to remind everyone of the grandeur of the Roman emperors and associate himself with that. Mussolini loved antiquity and wanted to himself be as close to a modern day Roman emperor as was possible.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 11:29AM:
Milardi: I forgot to post my name for the above post (March 17/2011 11:25 AM). It should be milardi
Posted at Mar 17/2011 02:19PM:
hschreiber: Roman emperors built their own fora to assert their power and leave lasting impressions on the Roman Empire. The fora were built as places for public use but also as places to revere the emperor and his ancestry. Both Julius Caesar and Augustus venerated their ancestors through their fora. In his forum, Julius Caesar dedicated a temple to Venus Genetrix, the founding mother of the Julian line. Similarly, Augustus praised the former emperor and his ancestor Julius Caesar by having him portrayed as a god next to Venus and Mars. In the porticos and exedras of his forum, Augustus also presented himself as the part of the long line of “summi viri,” or great men such as Aeneas, Romulus, and Republican senators. Augustus wanted to emphasize his distinguished family tree and divine descent through his forum. Emperors also built their fora to win favor with the public. They wanted to build beautiful, open spaces for the public so that business could take place and ideas could be exchanged. The fora were the central hubs of Rome. If I were emperor, I would create beautiful, peaceful spaces next to the busy areas of the fora so that people could have a place of rest in the middle of their day. These spaces would be similar to the Temple of Peace that Vespasian constructed. They would have fountains and architectural details which would celebrate the Roman people. These peaceful spaces would also have trees and grass to offer a respite from city life.
Mussolini led a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali so that he could link the past to the present, just as Julius Caesar and Augustus aimed to do. By uncovering the Fori Imperiali, Mussolini asserted his power and forever linked himself to the ancient history of Rome.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 02:48PM:
fstrauss:Emperors added to the Forum Romanum for a number of reasons… The forum was the centre of Rome, not only in terms of location but also in terms of religion, government and business. Forums were spaces for the public to work, shop, enjoy, and by contributing to these spaces they would win favour with the elite and the lower classes and garner political support. The forum was an historical landmark and setting up building within it would leave your mark in history. Furthermore Rome was already overloaded, with things such as lawsuits, and any construction of official buildings was greatly welcomed. Some emperors, such as Augustus built temples to gods which were closely related to them, such as Mars Ultor, who helped him avenge the death of Julius Caesar. Emperors would go to great lengths and spend a lot of money on improving these spaces and improving Rome, showing not only their wealth and power but also outdoing the previous emperors.
If I were emperor, I would build a market like Trajan’s. The market was accessible to and could be used by everybody not just the elite, such as the case of law courts or the senate house. In addition it would be beneficial to the economic growth of the city providing a centre for trade and commerce.
Mussolini recognised the splendour and grandeur of the forum in ancient Rome. As a leader he strived to rule as emperor and tried to recall many of the policies used in ancient Rome. The forum being the centre for Rome’s government was an essential part of his restoration of Ancient Rome. Uncovering Rome’s past glory was a great way to prove to present Romans that their past power could once again become great.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 02:54PM:
nwalker:
Emperors would have built additions to the Forum Romanum to mark their individual contribution to the Roman civilization hitherto, while also creating visual associations to their powerful rulerships. Rulers such as Caesar created additions that abutted their own forums to that of the Forum Romanum in order to portray a powerful message that showed Caesar and his family as a powerful ancestry that was destined to leave their mark on Roman society. Caesar wanted his own familial name to be connected to any political activity that was occurring in Rome and in turn created an inevitable way of doing so through architectural means. Unlike Caesar, Augustus created his forum to juxtapose Caesar’s while displaying an entirely different message—that he was not a tyrant, but more an equivocal piece of Roman civilization. However, it is clear that Augustus’ forum was intended to evoke a powerful message that would unarguably be associated with him, a fact clearly evident in the massive architectural developments Augustus made not only in the forum but also throughout the entire Roman Republic. Personally, I would have created extensions to the forum as well, not necessarily to dictate my rule clearly, but to leave my mark on Roman society just as rulers of the past had done. Rulers such as Mussolini, who revisited the idea of dictatorship and the aesthetics of such reign, likely would have wanted to support the excavation of such a project in order to show the significance of the individual ruler—an idea Mussolini tried to project throughout his controlling era.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 02:58PM:
bchu: The Fora of Ancient Rome were multifunctional places both related to government and commerce. As Rome’s population grew, it became clear that the original Forum Romanum was not large enough to contain all of the activity that Romans wanted to engage in. Thus, additions were hugely useful spaces to both the upper class citizens of Rome and the lower classes. But Fora were also useful to the emperors, who used them to make political statements and especially to legitimize their right to rule. For example, the Forum Iulium contained The Temple of Venus Genetrix, who Caesar claimed to be descended from. The Forum Augustum contained a temple to Mars Ultor, Mars the Avenger, which alluded to Augustus avenging the death of his father, Caesar, thus giving Augustus the right to rule. The Forum Vespasiani was in part an elaborate peristyle garden open to all residents of Rome, in direct contrast to the private opulence of the emperor Nero. The message that Vespasian wanted communicated by his forum was that he was the opposite of Nero and cared greatly about the general population of Rome. This way, he “bought” the allegiance of the people, who for obvious reasons did not want to repeat the experience of the past few years. Of course, by naming the Fora after themselves, the emperors assured that they would be remembered and their names would be uttered by the generations of the future to refer to the spaces they constructed.
Based on my current knowledge of the Imperial Fora, I would build a space specifically dedicated to commerce if I were emperor. Many of the spaces built were dedicated to aspects of government: the original Forum Romanum contained the Basilica Aemilia for changing money and the law court and the Forum Iulium contained the senate house. Other fora were dedicated to the remembrance and glorification of the past, such as the wings of the Forum Augustum with the portrait statues of great men and the display of war spoils in the Forum Vespasiani. However, while business certainly was done in the Imperial Fora, there is no specific place to trade—there is no large Roman market. My Forum would rectify this situation and with its great collection of shops and stands would be a place where both commoners and the elite could purchase or at least admire the objects that they desired. As a practical space that would centralize a diverse collection of shops in the center of Rome, it would surely be popular with both shopkeepers and customers, ensuring that it would be used and my name would be immortalized.
Mussolini’s intentions for excavating the Imperial Fora and other Ancient Roman sites was likely to support his fascist movement. By restoring the great buildings of Ancient Rome, he could unite the people of Italy behind him and help people remember the past glory of Italy. His idea was probably something like, “Now that I’ve showed you how great a world power Italy once was, stand with me and I’ll lead us back to that glory.” Historical projects like these also served to gain positive publicity and counteract the stories of the atrocities that his regime committed.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 04:20PM:
mstokely: Because of their central location in Rome and the empire, as well as their importance as a public space in Rome, it makes sense that many empires built and added onto the forums before them. This is mostly done to both validate and justify the emperors’ position but also to demonstrate their power as emperor. It validates the emperors by giving the Roman people a concrete example or how the emperors’ reign can provide better services for Roman citizens. This is demonstrated by Augustus’ use of marble in his forum, demonstrating how he can in fact improve the city. We see how the forums can also be a demonstration of power in Caesar’s forum by the way he placed his forum of axis, dictating how future improvements would be added to the forum. If I were to make an addition to the Forum, may focus would be on establishing the first point, that of validating my reign through demonstrating what goods and service I can give the people. I would do this by making a lavish forum space, more extravagant than the ones prior. In this way, I would also be demonstrating my power by showing the Roman’s I could build such a forum.
I think that Mussolini was not only attempting to link himself with the ancient Roman emperors (by uncovering the works of the emperors he could create a direct visual connection between what these emperors did and the projects he was doing in Rome during the early 20th century) he was also demonstrating the exact same principles. By excavating the ruins, he showed the Italian people that as ruler he cares about their history and past and will make sure that he caters to these features. At the same time however, excavating the Fori Imperiali was a massive task that only someone of great power would be able to follow through.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 04:52PM:
jman: Emperors of the Roman Empire built several Forums that were additions to the Roman Romanum. Such emperors that did so were Caesar, Augustus, and Vespasian. As we have been learning in class that almost all Roman art is about inventing an identity and ultimately creating a memory that will last through the ages, the same can be applied to these forums. With the existing Forum Romanum as almost a centerpiece, emperors have consequently added their own forums, as almost like wings to the center. By doing so, they intrinsically linked themselves to the one of the oldest standing structures of Rome, linking them to the history of Rome. These forums were sending three clear messages to the Roman people. First, these emperors were stating their power and elite status as the emperor in their capability of building these giant buildings. They were reminding the public who was in charge. Secondly, these emperors were essentially giving back to the Roman people. Forums were center hubs in which political, social, artistic discussion was occurring and where people could move in and out to learn major events of the city. These forums were a benefit to the Roman people, to increase their knowledge, and with building these, the emperors wanted to create an identity of generosity to the Roman people. Lastly, like stated before, it most definitely links the emperors to the past of Rome. Not only does it link them to the core of Rome, but also to the other emperors that were successful and great enough to build forums (and also not to have them torn down my damnatio memoraeii). Therefore, they are creating a memory of their greatness.
If I had a forum, I would make sure that were was a statue of me inside—so that when the citizens of Rome came to visit, they would constantly be reminded that I was the one that gave them the benefit of coming there, I was the one that provided this sort of leisure and knowledge to the city of Rome. It is very similar to what Augustus did in having a line of statues that related to the history of the Roman Republic and one that related to the deities—he essentially linked himself with two powerful lineages.
By excavating this land, Mussolini was doing exactly what these emperors were doing—linking themselves to a past. During his fascist movement, he was trying to remind the people of Italy of their history, their great history of the Roman Empire that conquered all. By excavating and having the actual monuments to refer to, he was telling people that he was going to do the same.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 05:07PM:
jmiranda:
The Roman forum, located in the center of ancient Rome, was a focal point for Roman public life. Triumphal processions, elections, public speeches, and criminal trials would all take place there. In addition to being used a space to commemorate and honor the city’s greatest men, it was also an effective space for projecting one’s political agenda to the public. Julius Caesar, in beginning work on the Forum Julium in 46 BC, set a precedent for future emperors. An emperor’s success and power may have been evaluated by his visibility to the public – and one of the most tangible measures of an emperor’s power was his architectural and construction campaigns.
If I was an emperor, I think my additions would be closest to those of Vespasian and his Temple of Peace. The idea of creating a space for the general public to come and to get a sense of otium, or cultivated leisure appeals to me. In a crowded and busy city, it would be even more valuable to create a space that all people, regardless of social status, could visit to relax and reflect in.
Mussolini’s effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali may have been part of his campaign to associate himself with the empire of ancient Rome, and to more closely delineate the ties between the power center he was building and the names of power such as Augustus and Julius Caesar. It was a visible effort to associate himself with the great antiquity of the city of Rome and its cultural heritage. Rather than creating new monuments as a symbol of his power, he was associating himself with monuments that already had deep significance. It almost seems similar to the efforts of some of the emperors to associate themselves with the Etruscan beginnings of the city, for example part of what Augustus tried to accomplish with his mausoleum.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 05:13PM:
lpress:
There are various reasons why each Roman emperor chose to build upon the Forum Romanum. These motivations included the emperors’ desires to validate their position as ruler, to gain support from the populace, and to solidify their place in the history of Rome after their death. For whichever specific reason they were focused on, almost every emperor’s decision to be involved in the building of the Imperial For a was based on their own personal need, as apposed to the needs of the Roman people. Despite this self-driven incentive, the forums nonetheless became elemental areas for all Roman citizens, housing important political and cultural events, as well as public discussions. They also offered a place for citizens to worship past leaders and allowed a physical area for commemoration of Roman history. If I were empereor, I would certainly build my own forum within the Imperial Fora. The forum would be aesthetically pleasing, built in a Hellenized style of marble and significant light, but would also be large enough to incorporate the citizens of Rome. I would hope to have a forum that housed important gatherings and events alongside established and impressive works of art. The forum would include a large garden where most of the sculptures would remain, and would be surrounded by marble pillars. I would want my forum to be one that would both allow for my remembrance in a peaceful environment as well as provide Rome with another beautiful structure that could be enjoyed by all. I believe Mussolini made such a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali in order to demonstrate his dedication to Rome. Through this excavation, the Romans could see how much Mussolini cared about their state and saw his hopes to keep the rich history of Rome alive. By excavating the Fori Imperiali, Mussolini also wanted to connect himself to the Roman emperors of the past, solidifying his desire to appear as a modern day emperor.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 05:25PM:
midenova: Emperors built these fora because it is an advertisement of their power and influence over the city. The fora are central to Roman life, so building one becomes a way for emperors to leave a mark on the face of Rome. Caesar, for instance, created his forum so that it would change the orientation of the Forum Romanum. It was a way for him to adapt Rome’s structure so that he would always be remembered. Caesar was assassinated before the Forum could be completed, and Augustus completed its construction. For Augustus, this was a way to advertise his family connection to Julius Caesar, who had at this point been divinized. Augustus was able to legitimize his power through having a divine father. He also created his own Forum in Rome, complete with the Temple of Mars Ultor. This temple had statues of great men along the colonnade, borrowing from an old-fashioned statuary agenda typically reserved for private constructions. Augustus, therefore, molds public and private styles, and makes his forum seem like the Augustan house to which he is inviting everyone in the public. Vespasian’s Forum also advertises his power as emperor, but more importantly, becomes a gift to the people. His Temple of Peace was a luxurious building that allowed everyone to experience otium – it was complete with rich art (some taken from Nero’s Domus Aurea), a library, and beautiful architecture. Vespasian’s Forum, therefore, shows how Vespasian is a good emperor of the people, who makes luxury available to everyone.
If I were an emperor, my fora would feature art that emphasized my family’s lineage. I would put up statues to advertise my family’s great deeds, and my own accomplishments, that helped to add to the Roman Empire’s glory. I would also, like Vespasian, try to have my Forum be a gift to the people. I would want them to appreciate my Forum, relax there, and remember that I had been the one who constructed it. A Forum that appealed to the people would also be an indicator of a promising future for the empire, so I would try to ensure that my Forum was popular so that it would help to support my authority.
Mussolini would have wanted to excavate the fora because he wanted to bring back the glory and power of ancient Rome, and emphasize those qualities in his own regime. By connecting his authority to ancient Roman authority, Mussolini would be able to legitimize himself as the ruler. These excavations also encouraged feelings of nationalism, which was key to Mussolini’s regime. In his own architecture, he was greatly inspired by Roman architecture. His face was omnipresent in Italy (much like Roman emperors’ images were everywhere), and he probably drew inspiration from ancient Rome.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 06:43PM:
kmanalo: Julius Caesar set an unspoken precedent for the future dictators of the Roman Empire by erecting his own Forum at an area that is now called the Imperial Fora. The forum was the political and social center of Roman life, so a ruler building one in his name associates his name with the daily life of the city, essential to the Roman Empire and its functioning. Thus, by building his own forum Caesar not only facilitated the overwhelmed Roman Forum but also identified himself as a high power primarily by associating himself with Venus Genetrix through the temple dedicated to her. Augustus’s forum also had a temple but dedicated it to Mars Ultor after having promised that he would following a triumphal conquest. Vespasian provided the Roman public with an area to experience booty from Judaea that was brought over, but this forum was also reminiscent of the Ara Pacis. The Ara Pacis’s purpose reminded the Romans of the accomplishments, public works, and the time of peace that occurred during the reign of Augustus. Vespasian wanted to echo that prosperous and fertile program of nature and beauty in his forum, so that the Romans felt safe as well during his reign. Domitian dedicated a temple to Minerva, which follows both Caesar and Augustus. Building a forum with a temple to a certain God seemed to justify the building of the extravagant temple in a way.
If I were an emperor, I would most likely build a forum similar to that of Vespasian that would feature my art gallery, in which works that I would have bought myself and not plundered from certain countries would be displayed. Moreover, I truly like the clean and graceful classical style, so it would be built in with Greek columns and have a lot of water decoration – fountains, reflecting pools, etc.
Mussolini lead a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali in order to align himself with Italy’s glorious ancient history in his attempt to ascend as an emperor-like leader. Mussolini was most likely trying to show the Italian populace the greatness that Italy could achieve under his rule in order to win their favor.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 06:57PM:
zchaves:
Emperors used forum spaces to expose the people of Rome to the specific values of their reign or dynasty, orchestrating and informing the flow of commerce, human traffic, and religious life through the carefully crafted spaces. Unlike other heavily-designed areas in the Empire like the Campus Martius, these forums impacted daily life in a very tangible way, infusing every day action with the soaring, propagandistic imagery that we can see on something like Augustus' Temple of Mars Ultor. I believe that the Emperors who built these spaces believed that, over time, people would come to associate the rhythm of their daily motions with the establishment of the specific forum, thereby associating the very pattern of their lives with the rule of a given Emperor.
I think that Mussolini dredged up and glorified all the monuments of Rome during his reign to associate himself with the splendor and greatness of his nation's most powerful epoch. Just like an Emperor like Tiberius used the aesthetic of Augustus to associate himself with greatness, Mussolini attempted to evoke power through symbolism.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 07:21PM:
aiarocci: There were many reasons for the emperors to build their own forums. These great architectural undertakings were not selfless acts by any means; in fact they were often just as much about promoting the emperors self-interests as they were about servicing the Roman public. By building structure in the forum, the emperor was joining an elite lineage, and making a lasting mark on the city. An example of this is the symmetrical regularity of the Republic for a built by Julius Caesar. This style linked him to the conservative, senate-centric Rome. However, Caesar was not a completely conservative traditional emperor, as he named himself the Dictator in Perpetuity. However, his traditional architectural style and building program at the Forum was traditional and trending toward the new Imperial style. His forum was a gift not only to the Romans who needed it because it was the center of the Roman political world, but it was a statement about the legitimacy of his reign and family lineage.
If I were emperor, I would probably want to build something at the Forum, but it would not be my main architectural gift to the city. I think it is important as emperor to build something at the Forum, as this is a way of including your name and building program in the history of power players of the Roman Empire. I probably however, would have done something more like the building program of Claudius, and focused on spreading my image and political message throughout the expanding empire. This way my personal prestige and thus the prestige of my heirs would be strong and recognized widely.
Mussolini’s excavation of the Fori Imperali was a very smart move. This aligned his image with that of Augustus, an influential and important historical figure in the minds of Italians. His excavations literally revealed a connection between contemporary Italian society and the powerful, prestigious classical world. This was the same type of connection to a classical heritage that the Nazi’s tried to make after WWI. This classical splendor was clearly an attempt to shed a positive light on the reign of Mussolini and instill the peoples of Italy with national unity and pride.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 07:23PM:
cklimansilver: Emperors added to the Forum Romanum in an attempt to display their grandeur and commemorate their feats. Each fora sought to conceptualize the extent of the emperor's power. Of course, the fora also served a political hotbed, where policy could flourish, laws could be decreed, and common people could listen to the words of their leaders. Erecting new buildings served only to strengthen the political foundation of each emperor's reign. At the heart of it lay the emperor's greatest challenge: to strike the balance between opulence and impressiveness. It was important to assert dominance, but only in the most subtle of ways. Else, they risked certain mutiny and potentially death. Propagandizing oneself was highly strategic, especially if efforts established a connection between the emperor and other powerful bodies (such as Julius Caesar's Forum Iulium, which was modeled after the Republican fora). Fora were also an excellent way to pay tribute to gods and goddesses, such as the Temple of Mars Ultor (featured in the Forum Augustum); this was a wise move because it suggested that the emperor saw gods above him and did not view himself as omnipotent.
I would create a large forum to link the fora already in existence. To this extent, I would connect with the other emperors, paying tribute to the past, while drawing on my ability to unite it. My forum would also serve the people, offering art galleries, libraries, and space for debate; by appeasing my people, I would be able to establish my power.
Mussolini believed in a Roman revival, one that he wished to lead. As a self-appointed neo-emperor, he wanted to refashion Rome in the way his "forefathers" had. Rebuilding the Fora Romanum allowed him to reconnect Italians to their past, to remember where Rome came from, what it meant, and why. His efforts allowed to marry power and history, vaulting him into the position of authority he desired.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 08:07PM:
nvitrano: The Roman Forum, in both the Republic and the Empire, was always the center of life. It was the location of the Curia and the Rosta, as well as the resting place of the Roman courthouse and the “wall street” of Roman life. All the buildings in the Forum were symbols of important aspects of Roman Life. Once Rome became an Empire, Emperors began adding to the Forum for political means.
As seen with many of the early monuments, temples, and theatres erected to commemorate war victories, architecture was used in Ancient Rome in order to convey power, strength, and status. Augustus built a temple to Mars in his forum, that also included Venus, the goddess from which the Julian line was said to have stemmed, and the deified Julius in order to convey to the people of Rome his right to rule as a divus filis. Vespasian added a “Temple of Peace” to the Forum as a means of reminding the Romans of the peace that his rule had brought to the empire. He wanted to erect a building that would constantly convey his triumph in bringing peace to the Romans after putting a stop to a civil dispute. The Roman emperors used these additions to the Forum Romana, regardless of its “intended purpose”, to validate their rule and leave their legacy on the Roman Empire. By placing a building dedicated and erected by them in the hub of Roman life they also become the center of Roman life. Every Roman passes, goes into, or sees these building everyday. Adding to the Forum was an incredible way to establish yourself as emperor while also connecting yourself to their distinguished predecessors.
If I were Emperor of Rome, I would follow Julius and Augustus’ example, and use my additions to connect myself with the great mythology of the past and the revered gods that the Romans knew so well and that were such a large part of their life. It would allow the Roman people to associate me with things they already knew and loved. Power can only be obtained as long as the people are willing to give it. By associating myself with these heroes and gods, my ability to rule well would have more validity in the eyes of the Roman people. This, in my opinion, would be the best use of my addition to the Fora.
Mussolini, not unlike the Emperor’s of Ancient Rome, was trying to expand and glorify the Italian Empire. He also wanted to put himself in the light of the gods in the eyes of the Italian people. By resurrecting the Empire of the past, he could take his place in the seat of power for this new Empire. If he could visually recreate the Fora that glorified all the great emperors of the past, he could to walk among them.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 08:29PM:
caronson: The Emperors of Rome built forums to assert their power and dominance to the people of Rome. The Roman forum was a place through which the general public would frequently pass. It was a center of politics, meeting, and business. Therefore, by constructing more impressive add-ons the builder is promoting his power, himself, and his family to the public. If I were going to build a forum I would want it to be more spectacular and more inviting than all the previous. I would also make sure that there was plenty of decoration to remind the public who built it. That way I would be seen as not only a more powerful leader but also maybe a more generous one as well for building this great space for the people. Just as the Emperors of Rome built their forums to show they’re power, dominance, and gain the respect of the people, Mussolini probably have very similar goals in mind when he set out to excavate the Roman fora along with any other pieces of the ancient city. Mussolini believed that associating himself with ancient Rome, the great empire, he would be seen as a great ruler.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 08:39PM:
jpardoe: A Roman Emperor had one main goal in mind when building a public forum. That specific goal was to gain popularity with the masses. The Roman people loved and greatly respected Emperors who did things for the people of Rome. A nice public place where people of all status could come and spend time walking around and other leisurely activities was highly liked by the public.
If I were Emperor I would make additions such as the ones that Vespasian built in his Forum of Peace. I would add things such as flowers or trees, maybe water and fountains as well as a potential library or other theatre. All these things that the public could enjoy and allow your popularity to grow with the masses are great. Popularity with the masses was huge and creating a great public space that they liked would be very satisfying. Not to mention, it would be remembered through history because it is hard to erase an entire network of forums such as those that are in Rome today.
Mussolini would want to uncover and excavate the forums because they bring great pride to the modern day people of Rome. The forums represent all the great and powerful Emperors and people that came before them. Mussolini loved the ancient Roman Empire and wanted to do everything possible to uncover and learn as much as possible about his ancient Roman ancestors. He could have uncovered the forums to show the people of Rome and Italy how much he cared about the country and its ancient history. He does not need to build a modern day forum himself, he can just uncover the ancient ones.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 08:53PM:
otraynor: During the imperial period, cultivated leisure steadily increased in popularity. Romans of the elite classes even constructed their homes with spaces dedicated to this ideal. Peristyle gardens were used as a place for contemplation with a live in philosopher, and galleries filled with art from different part of the world allowed the homeowner to reflect on the different cultures within the empire. The Imperial Fora, which resemble the villas of wealthy Romans at times, were created so that Romans of the lower classes could also revel in cultivated leisure. For example, the Forum of Vespasian is constructed in the fashion of a peristyle garden, in which Romans of all types could discuss philosophy or politics.
The Imperial Fora also contained temples which were meant to remind Romans of the emperor's patronage or personal conquests. The Forums of Julius Caesar and Augustus have temples that emphasize the former, their patronage. The Forum Julium is connected to the Temple of Venus Genetrix (mother or forebear), emphasizing Caesar's alleged relation to Aeneas and his divine mother Venus. Augustus, on the other hand, included an image of the deified Caesar himself in his Temple to Mars Ultor (The Avenger). Constructed as a monument to Augustus's successful campaign against Caesar's murderers, the temple houses a statue group of Mars, Venus, and Divine Julius Caesar. This holy trio was politically significant for Augustus because he was aligning himself not only with his deified father, but also with Caesar's own Julian ancestry, into which Augustus had been adopted. Unlike these two fora the Temple of Peace, or the Forum of Vespasian, was dedicated to the peace that Vespasian had established by conquering the rebels in Judea. In all three cases, however, the temples within the fora reminded those inside of the personal glory of the emperor, thereby legitimizing his rule.
If I were to build an imperial forum as Roman emperor, I would have to take my political goals into account. For instance, if I were the son of an emperor who had been largely disliked, then it would be silly to include homages to my lineage all around the forum. Instead, I would include imagery that reflected my own accomplishments, such as a military victory. Regardless of what I decide to place in the forum, all of the imagery should have one, simple goal: legitimizing my rule.
The Italian Fascist movement of the 1920s and 1930s, like many other fascist movements, was fascinated with national heritage and the glorious past of Rome and Italy. Consequently, Mussolini made sure to capitalize on the fact that one of the greatest empires in history had been ruled over by his people. The fascists excavated much of the Imperial Fora because those were some of the monuments that best expressed Roman power and greatness. Take the Forum of Augustus, for example, which contained countless images of "Summi Viri" from all over Rome's past. The Imperial Fora that Mussolini helped to uncover served a similar purpose to the "Summi Viri." After the excavation, Mussolini was able to draw the Italian people's attention to Rome's glorious past. The five Imperial Fora served as a testament to each man's greatness, just as the "Summi Viri" busts had in the Forum of Augustus.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 08:55PM:
chuang: The emperors would build these for both propaganda and legacy reasons. Because the fora were the center of public life, they were inherently part of Roman life. What better way to reach the people than through the fora? As Romans conducted business and enjoyed their everyday life in the fora, they were constantly reminded of the emperors who built them.
The emperors' choices of art and architecture within the fora suggested and justified their power and legitimacy. Romans would constantly pass Venus in her Venus Genetrix form and Julius in a deified form to confirm Augustus's rule as divus filis. By connecting himself in a divine way, he could justify his rule as emperor. Vespasian built the Temple of Peace to commemorate the period of peace he brought to Rome. His forum was luxurious, and people enjoyed spending time there and appreciating the rich art collection he made available to the public. As Romans sought entertainment in the Temple of Peace, they were reminded of Vespasian.
If I were emperor, my fora would have an extensive collection of art as well. There would be fountains, gardens and even an upscale public bath. Many of the statues I would put in my forum would be of my ancestors to honor their memory. I would also find a way to create a tie between the divine and myself through art. My forum would also include shops and stages for public plays and speeches.
Mussolini put a huge amount of effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali and other sites to gain the same love and respect from his constituents as the Roman emperors hoped to acquire from the Romans through building their fora. Mussolini ventured to remind everyone of their roots from the old glorious empire. He also wanted people to appreciate his efforts to preserve and commemorate the rich culture left behind by the Romans.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 09:03PM:
cparker: Roman emperors had a number of specific reasons to construct a forum of their own. Caesar, after returning from his glorious victories over the Gallic people, built his forum to solidify himself as the “dictator perpetuo.” To demonstrate his great power and political importance not only did his forum completely realign the existing forum Romanum but he also constructed a large curia for senatorial meetings and a temple of Venus. Emperor Augustus also built a forum of even greater grandeur. The purpose of this construction however had more subtle intentions. Augustus placed his forum directly perpendicular to that of his late adopted father in order to enhance his connection to the then divine Caesar. He also placed at the rear of his forum a massive temple of Mars Ultor that included two exterior spaces where many statues and busts of the most famous Romans and gods were displayed along side those of his own family and the Julio Claudian lineage. This detail insinuated that Augustus was descendent of Rome’s greatest. Actions by later emperors followed this trend in each of their fora. Each space was simultaneously dedicated to the people and city of Rome but also to honor the man who built it.
If I were emperor I would take action similar to those of Vespasian. I would build a large forum that would immortalize my actions and those of my family however I would also make it a useable place of the common people of Rome. I would include libraries, spaces for education, as well as a park like setting including trees and fountains. A truly great emperor must both be loved and feared by his people.
Mussolini excavated these areas because he wanted to return Rome to the world ruling city-state of its past. He wanted to rekindle the grandeur of individual emperors, in all probability to enhance his own image as the new emperor. These massive and beautiful ruins would inspire great nationalism and assuage the populace to overlook the horrible actions Mussolini took in his rise to power.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 09:04PM:
mcvickem:The Imperial Fora in Rome was the site of large public building projects added over time by leaders to enhance their image in the eyes of Roman citizens. These projects were undertaken by the emperors Julius Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Trajan, and Nerva. Each built their own marble and column enclosed space for public prayer, markets, museums, and enjoyment. All were meant to please the public while also cementing the emperors’ name in Roman history through physical works that lasted long after their death. Caesar’s forum added space for public business and a temple to Venus, Augustus used local Italian marble to build his massive forum and temple to Mars Ultor, Vespasian built his forum and temple in honor of restored peace to Italy, and the other emperors followed suit. The Forum Romanum was a way for Roman emperors to use public art and architecture as instruments of personal propaganda.
If I were emperor I would certainly want to construct a personal section of the Roman forum to be remembered by. I would want to add something unique and useful, while also staying within the traditional forum design. This would allow me to stand out among the other emperors without diminishing the long respected architectural precedence by previous rulers. I would build an enclosed oval forum with fountains supplied by the aqueducts and a large temple to Bacchus, because under my rule there would be abundant wine and festivities.
Mussolini led a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali because he was hoping to bring back the Roman desire for an Italian empire. Rome successfully gained control of much of Europe during its prime and the lavish Roman Forum was evidence of the prosperity Rome attained in doing so. It was full of large public buildings, art, and spolia. Mussolini was alluding to his intention of creating an Italian empire by reminding his people of the one that used to be.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 09:07PM:
gwhitridge: Roman emperors had many reasons to construct their very own forums but no matter their “dedicated” they all were propaganda to increase the emperors popularity. Julius Caesar, Augustus and Vespasian had the largest and most grand of the forums. Augustus forum was very unique because he not only included a temple of Mars but also included some of his ancestors of the Julian line, in order to legitimize his succession to the throne. The Temple of Mars commemorated his victory in the battle of Philippi. Vespasian constructed the Temple of Peace, which is ironic considering he helped fund the building through the booty he received from Jerusalem and celebrates the idea of subjugation from Jerusalem. The building had a library and lots of art from the sack. Perhaps the part the most resembles peace is the gardens that it employed along with fountains. All of these temples in one way or another represented some form of victory whether that be politically or militarily and helped show the Roman people that their emperor was in fact supposed to be in power.
If I were an emperor of Rome I would create a grand forum but use nature or green space in anyway possible to show people the connection we have to land and how we can live in harmony with it. I feel that large arches and columns along with a library for public use with the incorporation of vegetation would create an atmosphere that would very desirable and that the Roman people would be in awe of it. Not only would it provide library but open space with trees and some sort of water feature would allow Romans the ability to gather in a space away from the hustle and bustle of city life.
Mussolini lead a huge effort to uncover the Fori Imperiali because he wanted to show Italians their heritage. In doing so he legitimized his reign as dictator of Italy. He also provided Romans with a morale boost especially during the war and kept their attention distracted from his other projects, which provided his people with no benefit.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 09:35PM:
nelder: Roman Emperors had various reasons for building forums, but the main reason was to uplift themselves and thereby provide legitimacy to their rule. This technique was first used by Julius. He built a forum in his own and provided it as “gift” to the people of Rome. Such an act was supposed to equate Julius with both generosity and power. Though the creation of a forum, he could create a space where people would gather to socialize and where leaders would meet to make decisions about the empire; all the while being bombarded by images specifically chosen by Julius to speak to his triumphs and strength. The other emperors would follow Julius’ lead and create spaces for the same type of purpose. Each sought to add their name to the framework of power instilled in the minds of their subjects. Roman citizens grew of learning of great history of Rome and its Champions. These forums where the emperors’ attempt work themselves into that narrative and show that they were capable of continuing the Roman tradition of greatness.
What I would have in my own forum would depend greatly on at what point in Rome’s history that I was in power. Most likely though, I would try to balance honoring the past with honoring myself. I would seek to honor the gods, like Augustus and his temple to Mars, and possibly to honor past Emperors, such as Augustus or Vespasian. I would also seek a place in my forum to which I could honor a past triumph of mine, such as a great military victory. I definitely would place anything there that could come across as me making myself into a god or absolute dictator. My goal would be to create a sense of oneness with the images of the gods and past glorious emperors with the images of myself or my triumphs. I would want people to know that I am just as powerful as the heroes in the stories they heard growing up. I would want them to raise me up in their minds to the level of the mythical without me having to come and say I’m a god or I’m somehow divinely empowered. I would want it be a conscious connect but to happen subconsciously.
Mussolini lead the effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali for the same reasons that the emperors built it in the first place, it associate himself with the mythical past while simultaneously displaying his own power. Mussolini was attempting to recreate the Roman Empire and fasten himself as its emperor. To him, the best way to do this was to invoke the memories of a distant, gloried past and project that image onto himself. He wanted Italians to see the greatest that was the Roman Empire with their own eyes. He wanted them to witness how great Rome was and thereby see how great it could be again. He wanted them to know that it was he brought the buried Rome Empire back and that it was he could restore Italy back to its former glory.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 10:18PM:
pmeehan: The manipulation of public space to fit the political agenda of the state is a hallmark of any capable government – Rome was no exception. In fact, Roman art and architecture very often served a public and pragmatic role in shaping the identity of the state and its leaders in the eyes of the people. In Imperial Rome, the emperors were especially conscious of how important the cultivation of public image was in first legitimizing then enhancing the power that they had usurped or inherited. The Forum, the political heart of Rome, was the prime venue for displaying art and architecture which would communicate the emperor’s image, values, and politics to the Roman people.
For example, Julius Caesar constructed a new forum which not only provided much-needed space for exchange of goods and services, but it reminded the people of their leader’s strength, achievements, and lineage (the Temple of Venus Genetrix). Augustus’s forum further expanded the public space and even capitalized on the existing fora to emphasize his connection to Caesar, his adopted father, as well as to communicate his own imagery of fertility and peace which his reign had restored. Furthermore, Augustus mixed art depicting classic Roman founding mythologies with imagery of his own family heritage and lineage, inextricably linking his own identity with that of the Roman state. As an emperor, I would have followed the example of Caesar and Augustus in coloring my forum with idealized imagery of my own imperial family mixed with Roman mythologies and statues of exemplary men. A temple or a public building like Julius Caesar’s basilica could have enhanced the utility of the space as the artwork enhanced its shaping of my public identity.
In rewriting and revitalizing Italian history in the quest of reestablishing Italy as a major power, Mussolini sought to harness deeply engrained strands of national identity through the restoration of public spaces and works linked to Italian pride and heritage. The excavation of the Roman fora was a means of recovering the glory of ancient Rome and manipulating space to link his own agenda with the legendary power of Imperial Rome. Thus, Mussolini sought to evoke the nationalist sentiments needed to mobilize the support of Italian people for the new fascist government and its mission.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 10:29PM:
JGorelick: The forum was the most public of places, used for mostly everything by everyone, from the smallest of social matters to serious business. Because it was such a public place, it was very important that it represented the greatness of Rome. Similar to most other major architectural works in Rome, emperors would naturally take the chance to put in a good name for themselves through dedications, portraiture, representation in reliefs, etc. The forum became the single most important outlet for the forever-lasting statement an emperor would leave on Rome for all of time. After Caesar set a precedent with his relocation of the Senate house and construction of his forum, we see with each new emperor and each new imperial line, a statement that reflects upon their relationship with the previous emperor and/or the history of Rome itself. Caesar glorifies himself and the image of his loved ones, and Augustus takes note of this and in his forum and Temple of Mars Ultor, he is careful not to include strong references to his wife Livia. By connecting his forum to Caesar's, he was creating a direct show of his legitimacy as an emperor and his place of power. This connection is continued with the adjacent building of fora by future Roman emperors.
Mussolini often talked of himself as the modern-day emperor of Rome, and thus thought it very important to "bring past glory back to Rome" by literally unearthing it's history. By doing so, he was in effect trying to build his own piece into the fora by basically putting his name in history next to what was rediscovered.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 10:44PM:
Marco Ziff: The commission of public building programs in Rome was an extremely important priority for Roman emperors. The emperors with foresight knew that leaving the city of Rome with permanent, extraordinary monuments would cement their legacy in the annals of history. The Forum Romanum was the commercial and political center from the city’s founding, thereby making it the center of the entire Mediterranean world. Throughout the Republic, elite Romans constructed buildings in their names in order to both better the state and to glorify their family lineage; so it is no surprise that emperors continued this tradition but on a much larger scale. By the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus, not only was adding to the Forum necessary as a result of the burgeoning population of Rome (then around one million), but it also proved to be a golden opportunity showcase the Julian-Claudian line’s power, divinity, and beneficence. Caesar realigned the forum with his Temple to Venus Genetrix. Augustus built his even more monumental one perpendicular to his divine father’s, dedicating the temple to Mars Ultor (the avenger) in honor of his victory over Caesar’s murderers. Augustus desired to make Rome worthy of its title of capital of the Empire and did so through his immense number of building projects. Later emperors strove to emulate Augustus, who was revered and divinized after his death, by further beatifying the city with buildings for the public. Vaspasian’s forum consisted of art galleries displaying artwork taken from all around the provinces, providing the masses with the otium, or cultivated leisure, that was previously only available to wealthy families strolling about in their countryside villas. The Imperial Forum, with all of its contributions from the emperors, benefitted the Roman people and grew to be eternal reminders of its divine imperial patrons.
If I were emperor, I would add an enclosed, colonnaded complex similar to that of Augustus, but the sides would be structures in the mold of the stoas in the Agora in Athens as opposed to the typical shallow passageways. In this way, my forum would be used daily by businesses and shopkeepers. It would be a center for commerce and activity. At the back end, I would build a basilica to house more courts of law, and further in back a temple to my patron god. Overall, I would want my forum to have the most activity and have the capacity to handle the diverse Roman population. Mussolini led a massive excavation to uncover the Imperial Forum because he wanted to link himself to the emperors of Rome. He felt that exposing as much of imperial Rome as possible would legitimize his fascist rule and give his brutal, despotic government more credibility.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 10:55PM:
cmwu: Emperors of ancient Rome constantly sought to create favorable identities for themselves in the public eye. As the heart of the Roman Empire, the Imperial Fora provided the ultimate space for promulgation of the ideal reputations the emperors aspired to convey. Julius Caesar began this trend when he constructed his personal Forum in the Imperial Fora, and utilized the space as a symbol of his essentiality to the functioning of the empire. He took advantage of divine association by dedicating the temple to Venus, thereby legitimizing himself as ruler with guidance from the gods. In a similar fashion, Augustus dedicated his temple, Mars Ultor, to the gold of war. This temple strategically integrated “Great Men” statues of Augustan lineage with those of Roman mythological genealogy, serving to reconstitute the memories of the Roman people by presenting the concept that the Augustan line is intertwined with the empire’s foundations. Additionally, the temple furthered the recurring theme throughout the Augustan age that the emperor was responsible for bringing peace to the Roman people, and that this peace was founded on military conquests. Emperor Vespasian sought to emulate Augustus’ promotion of peace, fertility, and military success through his own addition to the forum. By providing luxurious peristyle gardens and a library funded by military conquest, Vespasian cleverly expressed the transfer of “otium” or educated leisure from the private elite sphere to the public setting, in his name. In the tradition of making divine connections through architecture, Domitian erected his temple in the name of Minerva for the Roman people.
If I were to construct my addition to the fora, I would include some allusions to fine dining because I love creating delicious food and enjoying food in the company of friends and family. I would use food as a symbol of prosperity, peace, and camaraderie. Perhaps I would construct a large banquet hall displaying lavish serving vessels and dining chairs and tables funded by the conquest of new lands or from trade. I would echo Vespasian’s message that I am the emperor responsible for bringing these luxuries to all Roman people
Through his excavation of the Fori Imperiali and other sites, Mussolini strategically hijacked the message that was already set in place by the ancient Roman rulers that the leader will bring greatness to the empire’s people. He reminded the Italian people of the greatness of the past and hoped to excite them to recreate the pride of the Roman Empire by uniting under a single ruler. By linking himself to the success of the Roman Empire, Mussolini evoked images of greatness and imperial power and nationalism.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 11:39PM:
cbahamon: A simple means of achieving/demonstrating greatness is by associating oneself with past glory. This was precisely the mindset of the great leaders of Rome.
Forum Julium: While his rival Pompey the Great sought to woo the people of Rome with his construction of Theater of Pompey (dedicated in 55 BCE) J. Caesar decided to make his mark by changing the face of Rome’s center. By constructing the Forum Julium in its given location, not only did Julius Caesar add a new space with his name, but also he drew attention to his structure by changing the main axis of the Roman Forum, such that it was angled directly with his new forum. In addition, Caesar declared his noble ties by dedicating a temple in his forum to Venus Gentrix, patron to the Julii and their decided ancestor, Aeneas, founder of Rome.
Forum Augustum: In order to link himself with the greatness of his deified father-in-law and to find favor with the people of Rome, Augustus had his forum constructed directly off-of the Forum Julium. The location of the forum is a clear declaration of Augustus’ tie to Julius Casear, and this was Augustus’ intention. After all, Augustus was merely the adopted son of Julius Caesar, and he sought this architectural statement to absolve his absent blood tie. In addition, the Forum Augustum fit in with Augustus’ architectural program of transforming Rome into a city of marble, giving the citizens a capital truly worthy of such a great empire.
Forum Vespasiani/The Temple of Peace: Really more of a temple than a forum, Vespasian continued in the way of his predecessors by adding his mark to the center of Rome. However, it is interesting that while, like J. Caesar and Augustus, Vespasian adds onto the Forum Romanum, there is a distinct architectural gap between his structure and theirs. Though Vespasian may have separated his “forum” from those of J. Caesar and Augustus because he deemed it a better distribution of space, the gap between the structures is apt considering Vespasian’s attempts to distance himself from the corruption of the Julio-Claudians who came before him. By building his forum where he did, Vespasian links himself to the glory of the Roman Republic as illustrated by the Roman Forum, without needing to tie himself to the Julio-Claudians.
Forum Nervae: Like the ascendancies of Vespasiani and Augustus before him, the reign of Nerva marked the beginning of a new dynasty. Thus, it is fitting that he would want to legitimize himself by adding onto the Forum Romanum. Though Domitian started the Forum Nervae, like many other works of Domitian’s, this too was transformed to be dedicated to Nerva (Nerva was after all, the one who finished the construction).
Were I to legitimate myself as emperor, I too would want to build a forum of my own adjacent to the Forum Romanum (I would call it the Forum Caecilium of course). I would be sure to build a temple to the god I was descended from (Apollo), and cover the outside with reliefs from my victorious campaigns. However, like Augustus before me, I would not merely focus on building new structures, but would want to renovate old structures significant to the greatness of Rome (as Augustus did when he renovated the Theater of Pompey without adding his name).
Mussolini too recognized that achieving greatness does not require new construction but mere association with the glory of the past. Thus Mussolini legitimizes his power not by building a forum of his own, but by excavating the Fori Imperiali, demonstrating a respect for the mos maiorum and tying his own regime to the power of the Roman Empire.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 11:43PM:
becohen: The Roman Forum was the cultural and political center of Rome. When emperors built in the forum, the quintessential place of Roman public life, they intended for the works they commissioned to be seen by the largest number of people possible. By building in the Forum, emperors could effectively propagandize both their own accomplishments and those of their family. Controlling popular perceptions was essential to maintaining popular support for an emperor and keeping a strong hold on power. In an era before mass media, with the possible exception of coinage, there was no better way to spread the message of ruler than through impressive construction projects in an extremely public area. This can be seen in the works of countless Roman emperors and political figures. It would be sensible for a Roman politician to glorify themselves and establish the connections of their family to the glory of Rome.
Mussolini’s extensive efforts in excavating the Roman Forum stem from a desire to associate his own Fascist Italy with the former glories of Rome. Much of his expansionist rhetoric revolved around the creation of a new Roman Empire in the Mediterranean and the revival of Italy as a center of power. Thus, it is sensible that Mussolini would attempt to associate his own regime with a time when the inhabitants of Italy ruled a vast empire. Furthermore, in associating himself with a time which most Italians held as a source of great pride, shore up support for his regime and project himself as an extension of Italy’s glorious former history.
Posted at Mar 17/2011 11:59PM:
lfernandez:
The Forum Romanum was the center of Roman public life, so, naturally, emperors constructed their own additions nearby to establish and promote themselves as leaders, and to distinguish themselves from their imperial predecessors. Julius Caesar designed the Forum Iulium as a means of providing additional space for public business. However, it was more so intended to glorify the dictator and remind the populace of his divine lineage from Venus, which is why he dedicated a temple to Venus Genetrix – the founding mother of the Julian line. Augustus also, in his Forum Augustum, dedicated a temple; however, his was in honor of Mars Ultor. Colored marble was used in this temple to awe the populace and display the emperor’s wealth and status. To the east of Forum Augustum, Vespasian constructed a Temple of Peace (Templum Pacis), also known as the Temple of Vespasian. Like Augustus’ Ara Pacis, Vespasian’s Temple of Peace was designed to celebrate the restoration of peace to Italy. The temple also embodied the idea of otium, for it provided the Roman people with the leisure and pleasure typically reserved for the wealthy elite. The Forum of Nerva, or the Forum Transitorium, begun by Domitian but completed by Nerva, connected all the other fora. The temple in this forum was dedicated to Minerva, Domitian’s patron deity. Thus, there are explicit themes concerning the construction of the fora: the commemoration and glorification of the emperor, the dedication of temples to the divine, and the embodiment of otium.
If I were emperor, I would construct a forum that simultaneously glorifies my triumphs, advertises my ancestry, and benefits the Roman people – a true embodiment of otium. Similar to Vespasian, I would use my forum as a museum-like space to display numerous works of art, and I would include lavish decoration and adornment, such as the colored marble and vestiges in Nero’s Domus Aurea. Also, Mussolini led a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali, for he sought to arouse a dormant sense of nationalism through a revival, in a sense, of former leaders/rulers. He also desired to cast himself as a modern-day emperor by excavating a central part of Rome’s past.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 01:09AM:
kgroszyk: Since it was constructed during the early Republic era, the Roman Forum has been a symbol of power and political influence, and has been utilized by various political leaders to garner popular support and legitimacy. Aside from being a broad symbol of wealth and prosperity, the Forum was also used to achieve strategic political purposes for various Emperors. For example, the Forum of Julius Caeser contained a Temple of Venus, which illustrated his divine lineage and thus provided legitimacy for his power. The Forum of Augustus contained portraits of leaders from the Julio-Claudian line and various Roman leaders – which thus promoted distinguished family tree and the image of Augustus as next in the line of Roman great men. Finally, the Forum of Vespasian was constructed to provide the public with access to art and luxuries that were previously afforded only to the upper classes, which instilled a sense of populism with his rule.
If I were emperor, I think I would have followed Vespasian’s steps and created a forum that was designed for the common people of Rome. Just as he attempted to recreate the splendor of grandiose villas for the public at his temples, I would want to provide an opportunity for regular people to experience the fine luxuries that were only enjoyed by the upper classes – for examples, things like fine art galleries and Greek peristyles. Doing so would increase popular support amongst the masses and create an image of populism with my regime.
There are many possible reasons why Mussolini would lead a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali and other Roman sites. Perhaps he was attempting to connect himself with the Imperial leaders of the past – such as Caseser and Augustus – and present himself as a modern day Emperor. He could also have been attempting to provide evidence to the public of the past splendor and affluence of Ancient Rome, so that he could lead the public to believe that he could lead modern Italy to similar success. Either way, by uncovering these ancient sites Mussolini would inspire nationalism and pride in the public, which could ultimately bolster support for him.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 01:16AM:
kdesimone:
A common trend in imperial architecture is reaching to the past to define one’s own reign; the Romans were very good at portraying history in a way that made events seem like legends and humans seem like gods. Since the general public was familiar with these versions of history, an emperor could send a clear and powerful message by referencing as well as emulating historical figures whose memories were held in high esteem. Julius Caesar was the first individual to make his own personal impact on the Forum, and after he was deified, Augustus continued in Caesar’s fashion by making his own permanent changes to the Forum. Since Augustus was also deified after his death, it only made sense for future emperors to want to associate themselves with these gods by building in the same way in the same location in the heart of Rome. It became an expectation for the emperor to continue building spectacular works of architecture in the forum as a display of their own authority and to make them appear as equals to these legendary men of the past; this expectation involved a high degree of uniformity in style, as the consistent architecture symbolized the stability of the Roman Empire, but it was also expected that these additions included some innovative elements that indicated the current emperor’s personal taste and identity. Emperors wanted to make their presence known in a way that would have them remembered as legends in history, and they could not expect to do this without having a permanent physical presence in the Forum Romanum. Often this message would be seen in the images of propaganda that decorated the monument, such as marble carvings that showed the imperial family side by side with the legendary founders of Rome, but a less obvious way that the emperor could prove his worthiness to posterity was by simply providing such spectacular and elegant public spaces as a gift to the people of Rome.
If I were emperor, I would want to make an addition to the forum that would stand out more than the ones built by previous emperors. Of course, there was always the risk that if an emperor’s monuments were too extravagant or varied from the norm too much, he would be criticized as being egocentric and unreliable. Therefore, I would keep with the trend of including a temple to my preferred deity so as not to appear too haughty, but I would incorporate my own personal taste by making a very open and relaxing forum that would contrast with the more severe and serious style of other components of the Forum Romanum.
Mussolini wanted to excavate the Fori Imperiali to associate himself with the power and authority of the Roman Empire. When we look at the history of the Roman Empire from a more modern perspective, we don’t really have a comparable world power with the same amount of complete domination, so for Mussolini to display his aspirations to achieve the same amount of power was a very bold statement. His excavation efforts were propaganda to make himself seem like the one who would restore the glory of the Roman Empire, which has itself achieved an almost legendary connotation today.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 01:16AM:
kdesimone:
A common trend in imperial architecture is reaching to the past to define one’s own reign; the Romans were very good at portraying history in a way that made events seem like legends and humans seem like gods. Since the general public was familiar with these versions of history, an emperor could send a clear and powerful message by referencing as well as emulating historical figures whose memories were held in high esteem. Julius Caesar was the first individual to make his own personal impact on the Forum, and after he was deified, Augustus continued in Caesar’s fashion by making his own permanent changes to the Forum. Since Augustus was also deified after his death, it only made sense for future emperors to want to associate themselves with these gods by building in the same way in the same location in the heart of Rome. It became an expectation for the emperor to continue building spectacular works of architecture in the forum as a display of their own authority and to make them appear as equals to these legendary men of the past; this expectation involved a high degree of uniformity in style, as the consistent architecture symbolized the stability of the Roman Empire, but it was also expected that these additions included some innovative elements that indicated the current emperor’s personal taste and identity. Emperors wanted to make their presence known in a way that would have them remembered as legends in history, and they could not expect to do this without having a permanent physical presence in the Forum Romanum. Often this message would be seen in the images of propaganda that decorated the monument, such as marble carvings that showed the imperial family side by side with the legendary founders of Rome, but a less obvious way that the emperor could prove his worthiness to posterity was by simply providing such spectacular and elegant public spaces as a gift to the people of Rome.
If I were emperor, I would want to make an addition to the forum that would stand out more than the ones built by previous emperors. Of course, there was always the risk that if an emperor’s monuments were too extravagant or varied from the norm too much, he would be criticized as being egocentric and unreliable. Therefore, I would keep with the trend of including a temple to my preferred deity so as not to appear too haughty, but I would incorporate my own personal taste by making a very open and relaxing forum that would contrast with the more severe and serious style of other components of the Forum Romanum.
Mussolini wanted to excavate the Fori Imperiali to associate himself with the power and authority of the Roman Empire. When we look at the history of the Roman Empire from a more modern perspective, we don’t really have a comparable world power with the same amount of complete domination, so for Mussolini to display his aspirations to achieve the same amount of power was a very bold statement. His excavation efforts were propaganda to make himself seem like the one who would restore the glory of the Roman Empire, which has itself achieved an almost legendary connotation today.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 01:20AM:
ARodriguez: Imperial foras were built as great engineering projects to show the leadership and power of the emperor. They were also a clever method of propaganda in which the emperor offered a great public space for the enjoyment of the populace as proof of the ruler’s preoccupation for the welfare of the state. For example, Julius Caesar built the Forum Romanum to provide an adequate site for civic administration and commerce. The different type of structures in the forum such as the two basilicas, the senate house, and the rostra showed the diverse activities that took place in this area. It was meant to attract the populace and remind them of the emperor’s limitless power. Augustus extended the concept of the forum by adding the Temple of Mars Ultra in honor of the deified Caesar while building a forum of his own next to Caesar’s. The fora was not only a public space but also a sort of sanctuary for the Julio-Claudian line. Politics and religion became inseparable as projected in the fora where temples and senate houses were side by side. If I were an emperor I would include a museum in the fora where the great masterpieces of Roman art would be displayed. The museum would also include art looted from war in order to reiterate the superiority of the Roman Empire. I would also add a complex of baths for recreation and a great market with all sorts of shops.
Mussolini would lead a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali, among other sites in order to parallel his own leadership and greatness with that of the ancient Roman emperors. Not only was he fostering national sentiment but also he was linking himself to great leaders from the past just as Pompey paralleled himself with Alexander the Great. For example, Mussolini’s salute was taken from the ancient Roman salute of the Emperor to its people. By reviving Italy’s ancient history Mussolini was reminding the people that they originated from the greatest and most powerful empire of Antiquity
Posted at Mar 18/2011 03:48AM:
jconnuck: The Imperial Fora played a critical part in ancient Roman society, tying an imperial culture back to its republican roots. The Fora were key for emperors in that they offered a means of easily playing into the Roman sense of pride and civic duty. What better way to make people's feel as though their voices have been heard than to build public venues for ideas to be exchanged, speeches to be made, trade to take place and other general gathering and socializing. In addition, courthouses and bank buildings being placed right around the foras gave the people a sense of transparency of government.
But the additions to the Fora were even more shrewd. By donating these spaces for public use, the Emperor could plaster his image and other positive motifs all around the Fora. As people enjoyed the space they would clearly see whose generosity they were enjoying, and would certainly appreciate at that moment being a Roman citizen.
If I were an Emperor I would add room for shops and trade - to bring people to the Fora and encourage people to linger and spend time there. Temples, while nice to look at and in many senses a necessity, were not as practical in that the general public had little use for them. In that sense I would have focused mostly on building practical open spaces for the public to enjoy and remember their emperor fondly.
It makes sense that Mussolini underwent massive efforts to renovate this site as the Fori Imperiali represents the sort of heart and sole of Rome (and thereby Italy) at it's heyday. The Fora were the cultural center of Rome, and played a large role in drumming up national pride. Mussolini, eager to instill a sense of nationalism in his people, naturally would have hoped to evoke the same feelings almost two-thousand years later by digging up this site.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 08:20AM:
Robert Villeneuve: The Romans built Imperial Fora's for several different reasons. For one, the Fora was a designation and symbol of power-- especially for that of the ruler. It further allowed the ruler to create an image and impression through structure that wouldrepresent his rule in the future, that is after his time has past. Through this way, it was a symbol of power. The liberation of the forum being open to the public was a way of reaching all the citizens of Rome. The peoples autonomy and free will to enjoy this pleasant display was, in a way, a "gift" to the people of Rome. This attracted support and reassurance from citizens of all-both of lower and higher class-to the Emperor. Furthermore, some Emperors included temples of Gods within their forums. These included dedications to a variety of Gods by the respected Emperor. This was done in order to foster more power for the Emperor by linking himself with the supernatural. It is important to note how this choosing of a God, and also the style of the forum in its entirety was a decision made by the Emperor himself; this allowed the personality of the emperor to come out within the space of the forum so the people could get a better feeling of the Emperors personality. This served as a convenient and pragmatic phenomenon. The Forum itself also served other purposes such as being a location in which political meetings would take place.
If I were Emperor, I would put heavy emphasis on democratic ideals by reaching out to the people as much as possible. The important message to be sent would be that the forum is a place where my citizens of Rome could come for the day and enjoy the fruits of their own countries labor. The atmosphere would be relaxed and personal as opposed to distant and detached. I would include art that was pleasant and not too heavy in the thematics. This art would, ideally, portray scenes of the ultimatum of the Roman people and perhaps quaint scenes of nature in order to induce a tone of paradise. At the same time, I would have statues that would remind the Roman people who their Emperor is, and who exactly created this forum for them.
Considering the superiority and unmatchable power that Rome had in its days, it is no surprise why Mussolini would have striven to excavate the fora. If Mussolini could harness his own power parallel to the power of the Romans, his image and reputation as ruler could be greatly increased. This historic nationalism was a strategic tool to emphasize, in the minds of the people, the greatness and success of these lands in their entirety.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 08:28AM:
mfinnegan: The fora played an integral role in daily Roman life, as they were the site for political debate, public addresses, meetings and shops. By erecting magnificent monuments and grand temples at the fora, Emperors sought to gain public admiration and support and emphasize the grandeur of Rome. Because the fora were the hub of ancient Roman culture, the emperor could finance the construction of fora in public space and utilize this investment as an important tool for personal propaganda. By building the temple to Mars Ultor, or "Mars the Avenger", Augustus both gained popular support and sought to reestablish the "mos maiorum", or ancestral virtues of ancient Rome. He also erected statues of himself opposite statues of the "summi viri", historical figures of Rome renowned for their virtues and bravery. If I were emperor, I would follow Augustus' example and seek to establish my own positive public image and celebrate the honorable values of Rome, to dissuade crime and urban violence. I would also make sure that all important transactions and meetings had to take place at the fora by constructing buildings and theaters for public use. Rather than tax the citizens, to finance these efforts I would pay out of my own personal funds, so as to win the favor of the Roman populace.
Mussolini would have strived to excavate the fora to bring the days of imperial grandeur at Rome to the public eye. Because Mussolini considered himself to be a kind of modern emperor at Rome, he hoped to strengthen his political support and public image by recalling the achievements of Imperial Rome.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 08:37AM:
emilygilbert: Emperors built fora for many reasons. One of the main reasons emperors built fora was to gain recognition and win over the people. The forum was the center for Roman social life – people gave speeches in the forum, the senate house was located there, and several temples were there as well. People used the forum on a daily basis, so building a new forum would show that the emperor is working for the people of Rome. By putting his name on the forum, like Julius Caesar or Augustus, and emperor displays his power and makes sure people will always remember him. The emperor can then use the new forum to manipulate the people by erecting statues of particular people or building temples to certain gods, etc. For example, the summi viri were on display in the forum giving the people something to look up too and strive towards.
If I were emperor, I would make an addition to the forum similar to Vespasian’s Temple of Peace. I would make a garden where people could relax and enjoy the beauty of the forum. Not everyone could afford to have huge peristyle garden courts, so making a public garden in the forum would help me win the favor of the lower classes. Also, the forum is a very chaotic and busy place, and I think everyone would appreciate having a place to rest for a bit.
Mussolini led a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali and other sites because he was trying to associate himself with the Roman emperors. He tried to portray himself as a modern emperor so he proceeded with the excavations to show his power to the people and leave a legacy that will always be remembered. Also, Mussolini wanted to better Italy’s image and show the world about the country’s rich cultural history.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 08:59AM:
khays: The Roman Forum was the political, judicial, and religious public center of Rome, and of the Roman Empire. Emperors added to the forum for various political reasons, particularly to gain the support and admiration of the public.
Caesar built his Forum Julium to exert his power over the Senate and the Empire, as well as to provide a public space in his name. With the new forum, Julius Casesar redirected the Senate House, and the center of Rome to the Temple of Venus Genetrix, ultimately a reminder of his divine descent from Venus. (This was perhaps also a power play over Pompey’s Theater, completed in 55BCE).
While he distanced himself from Caesar in image, Augustus paid homage to his adoptive father by finishing the architectural projects he had begun, including the Forum Julium. Augustus built his own forum directly off of and perpendicular to the Forum Julium, and made the Temple of Divus Iulius its center. As the adopted son of Casesar, Augustus used his forum to tie himself to the Julian line, his distinguished family tree, and divine descent. The Forum Augustum utilized colored marbles in its plaza and porticos, which alluded to the marble capital of Athens during the Greek Golden Age under Pericles. Pliny the Elder described the Forum Augustum as one of the three most beautiful buildings in the World, owing to its use of marble. This reaffirmed Augustus’ claim, that he had “found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble” (Kleiner: 66).
Vespasian built his forum, or temple of Peace as a truly public space. The Forum Vespasiani was built a distance from the Forum Julium and Forum Augustum, which distinguished himself from the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Pliny the Elder also considered it one of the three most beautiful spaces in Rome, but its focus was on the exhibition of loot (particularly from Judea), knowledge, and art. The peristyle garden and library were open to any Roman citizen, and focused on displaying Roman culture and victory. Thus, Vespasian used his forum to create public support, as well as the allusion of Roman peace under his rule.
If I were to construct a forum, I would most likely want to create a garden space to display Roman loot, culture, and art (not unlike Vespasian). I would want it to be a place where Roman could enjoy the splendors of Rome. I would want to create speaking platforms on either side for public political or philosophical speeches. Additionally, I might want to build a zoo to display the exotic animals from across the Empire (which the public no doubt would love). Mussolini tried to evoke the sentiments of Italian power and significance through the excavations of ancient Rome. By unearthing the Forum Imperiali, he could draw ties to one of the greatest empires in history.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 09:43AM:
slink:
The forum served a central purpose in the everyday life of the Roman people and it served as a monumental space that commemorated the successes and history of Rome. It is therefore understandable why each emperor sought to make his mark on the Imperial Fora. Beginning with Ceasar’s alteration of the Forum Romanum, it became an important part of the emperor’s reign (and afterlife) to transpose, or add onto the fora. The additions the emperor made- in terms of layout or temple architecture- served as a message to the Roman people that the emperor was at the center of their life, responsible for each citizen’s well-being. And, once the emperor died, the fora served as a reminder of the successes of the emperor during their reign. What is interesting about these architectural projects is the split between the focus on the individual and the strict adherence to a common art-historical practice. On the one hand, these architectural alterations served as an opportunity to make the emperor stand out, beyond the history of the Roman people. Each addition to the Imperial Fora served as a visual push forward in time, marking the ways the emperor altered Roman history. But, at the same time, each section of the Imperial Fora relies on historical reference. Each of the fora makes reference to their ancestors and to the great history of Rome itself. Each emperor sought to add their own temple as a way of visually connecting their own person to a significant lineage or historical background. For example, Augustus built the Temple of Mars Ultor as a reminder of his connection to Mars and Venus. Too, he included images of Ceasar as a reminder of his connection to past rulers. Thus, each individual mark on history was combined in this longer timeline of Roman history at large. Aesthetically, all sections of the Fora were visually and spatially integrated to form a symmetrical and regular architectural program. Thus, the transformations an emperor made, were both in his own interest and in the interest of Roman history, which rooted them in success in the first place.
If I were to build my own fora- or to make my own additions- I would therefore have to consider this balance, between how I make my own mark, and how I might connect my history to the most important and outstanding people in Roman history. In the context of ancient history, I would certainly want to make a lasting connection with the gods (if I could claim a connection) in a visual program of sculptures, or in the format of a decoration program for a temple. And, I would also regularize my fora so that it “fit” with the previous additions, in respect for previous successors and for my ancestors. But, I would also be tempted to make my fora stand out. I am not sure I would go as far as Mussolini- who built a giant road through the middle of the Imperial Fora- but I would want to feel that my decisions progressed beyond my ancestors, and improved on Roman history rather than stagnate. Like Mussolini, I can see the benefit in relying on historical models that have been romanticized and associated with governmental success- such as the architectural programs from Roman antiquity. But, I can also see Mussolini’s need to innovate these models so that the effort is not to repeat history, but to improve upon history while keeping in mind (what Mussolini would consider) the most pure instances of governmental power- thus drawing a visual connection to Ceasar in particular.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 09:54AM:
passafuime: Emperor’s constructed forums to display their power, authority, and wealth. The forum has forever been the center of Roman life, as the original Roman forum was located directly in the center of the city on the Palentine hill beneath where the emperor’s resided. The forum was the center of political discussion and debate, with the Senate house being a central construction in the forum. Orators further were able to speak, like Cicero, and this allowed for the Roman people to gather together and listen to current events. and Ceasar, the first emperor to build such a forum in dedication to himself, organized his forum in such a way as to parallel himself with the importance of the Roman forum. It was constructed to notify the people of Rome of his power as a leader and the type of wealth he could bring to the city of Rome. After Caesar’s forum set the precedent for future emperor’s, the remainder of them also built forums or grand theatres and structures for themselves.
Augustus’ forum differed from Caesar’s because he focused on the influence and role that his divine ancestors and family played on his life. He used marble to construct his temple dedicated to Mars, and lined the entryway and center of the forum with busts of his ancestors as to show his connection to divinity and his right to rule Rome. The introduction of marble in this forum is crucial, as marble had never before been used on such a grand level. Augustus’ forum, like Caesar’s, was centered and focused around Augustus himself. Both forum’s, although made for the public, did not really seem like places built exclusively for the public (like Pompey’s theatre.) this personal type of forum continued in Rome with future emperors.
Verspasian’s forum (the temple of peace) differed from the forum of Caesar and the forum of Augustus because it was built for the public to enjoy and to celebrate the victories of Rome in battle. Vespasian’s forum is most likely different than the previous two because he was very much tied to his role as a commander of troops, and his forum reflected such ties. The forum consisted of war spoils and booty to remind the Roman people of their superiority and dominance as an empire. The Roman public could feel more welcomed and more connected to this type of forum, one built to welcome the general public in and enjoy the successes of Rome.
If I were an emperor, I would definitely build a forum that was a mix of both Augustus’ and Vespasian’s. I think it is important to always commemorate and honor your family members, yet I also find it highly important for a leader to welcome his monuments and architectural works up to the people of the city and make those who he rules over feel both welcomed and responsible for the current state of the empire. I would make sure there were many gardens and fountains everywhere to create a relaxing and laid back atmosphere, and on top of ancestor busts I would make sure to have war booty as well. This combination is good because it reflects both personal success and honor with the state success and honor, something that an emperor should always try to accomplish.
Mussolini wanted to excavate parts of the Roman empire from ancient times to support his fascist movement and notify the people of Italy of the power and dominance they once had as a state. He was able to successfully discover many ancient monuments, sculptures, paintings, etc. that celebrated the past succeses of the Roman empire, something that would forever connect him and the state to greatness. The linking to the past was essential in Mussolini gaining the support of the Italian people to follow his fascist movement.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:13AM:
hstrausser:The Roman emperors built their Foras for a variety of reasons. First of all, a fora served as a symbol of grandeur that represented the emperor’s power over the empire. By building an extravagant forum, an emperor would both be remembered during his lifetime and leave a legacy after his death. Julius Caesar was the first Roman to build a forum named after himself, and in doing so he attached his name to the daily life of all Roman citizens that conducted business, politics, and other happenings that occurred in the forum as well. After this, many emperors such as Augustus and Trajan built foras that commemorated their own names while serving as centers of daily life for every day people. Many emperors also placed a temple honoring a god in their forum in order to publicize their divine lineage. Caesar had a temple to Venus in his forum. If I were an emperor, I would make sure that my fora attracted the widest range of people possible, so that it would be more likely that all Roman citizens would go there on a normal basis. This way, my name would get more exposure and I would leave a greater mark on society after my death. Mussolini likely sought to excavate the Roman fora because his need for power was similar to those of the emperors; he needed to make it clear to everyone that he was superior. In uncovering these ancient fora, he associated his name with the emperors that had control over all, implying that he should have the same sort of control over the Italian people and cementing his status as the sole leader of Italy.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:25AM:
ereese: The Forum Romanum is a unique conglomerate of pride and permanence of name. While trying to recall a similar example that I have seen in person, the most personal experience I can come up with is the stairwell in the List Art Center. Many students that pass through this building leave their mark somewhere on the inside of its walls, and whether their names or paintings are covered up eventually by others, woven into a great grand scheme painting, or simply faded away, they have left an indelible mark on its history (although certainly lacking in the prestige of the Roman Forum). Each Roman emperor could approach this common space through the finely-tuned eyes and viewpoint of his own rule and would alter it depending on his priorities. Although the Forum remains Augustan in its main components (by finishing his father’s Temple of Divus Iulius at one end of the open plaza, framed by the two great basilicas, he really solidified its layout - and then proceeded to even add the monstrous Temple of Mars Ultor in 2 BCE), each emperor certainly contributed something to the architecture and general culture of the Forum. Included in Augustus’s alterations was the theme of alignment between the gods and the emperor, while simultanously reaffirming they were not on the same level (a fatal mistake of Julius Caesar’s). The history of Augustus and his family was woven seamlessly into the history of Rome’s with the included iconography of gods and summi viri; since following emperors also tied themselves to Augustan lineage, they would therefore also be participating in this social schema of imagery which had greater legitimation for their rule than possibly anything else. Thus the Forum started with the rostra and the Senate, Julius Caesar added his own forum onto this, Augustan added HIS own forum on to THIS, and three-quarters of a century later Vespasian adds his touches to this space which has remained a pivotal part of Roman life despite the many years that elapsed. His Templum Pacis is perhaps the most interesting addition; included was a library wing, a ton of war booty, and even some of Nero’s art (again, referencing the past, this time with a deliberate message of rejection). Not until Mussolini is there someone with enough cash and enough desire to perpetuate his empire is the Forum fully excavated. Although by this point, thousands of years later, he probably isn’t trying to tie himself into the Augustan lineage, Rome will forever have connotations of greatness; someone could take advantage of these connotations simply by linking themselves to the city’s greatest era. My Forum, however, would likely be along the lines of Vespasian’s although perhaps without the emphasis on war booty. Some of the Roman emperors were public relations nightmares, and it would be in my best interest to maintain a healthy relationship with the body of people I’d be ruling. I would also include some sort of lounge area for wine consumption, tasty eats, otium, and philosophical conversation.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:36AM:
jwang: Forum Romanum has a central location in Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire. It serves both as an architecture of multiple civil functions, and a monument to remind the Roman citizens and visitors the best of Roman Empire. There is no better location for the self-glorification of Roman emperors through artistic and architectural program. Roman emperors build temples at Forum Romanum that trace their divine lineage to the god of Rome, by which they legitimized their rulership as divine destiny linked with the destiny of the city of Rome. They also built additions with civil functions to deliver an image of caring for the people and the city. If I were Roman emperor, I would build a courtroom lavishly decorated in Greek and Roman Republican styles, with inscriptions of my achievements in the halls where people need to pass by. In this way, I would be able to demonstrate my emphasis on providing service and bringing peace and justice to the Roman people. At the same time, I uphold both the democratic values and the high artistic taste of Greek and Roman Republic.
Since Mussolini wanted to establish his rulership of Italy as a Roman emperor, by excavating the Fori Imperiali, he intended to remind Italian people of the glory of Roman Empire. He tried to deliver the message that he could rebuild Italy as a culturally rich, militarily insuperable, and economically powerful as his Roman ancestors.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:49AM:
rcuellar: The forums of Ancient Rome were a very important and widely known place, in some ways as downtown is known to people today (similarly always including the capital building in capital cities). So as being the center of the roman world these forums could be used for political and social agendas. Each emperor that built one of these lavished forums would use them to display the extreme power and wealth that they held as well as use them to show their pedigree to being the ruler of Rome. Many used this space to show what would come from their reign, such as the Templum Pacius or the Ara Pacis Augustae , both depicting the peace that the reign of the current emperor would bring to Rome.
If I were emperor I would want to provide a useable public space for all the people of Rome to use. Much like that of Vespasian my forum would provide a common space for all Romans to enjoy where they can relax and have a good time. I think I would do this by creating a place of great leisure and artwork provided for the enjoyment of the public, this will show the public that I am capable to bringing peace Rome will have under my reign. I would also use this space to display pieces to show the history of my family (providing reasons I make a great emperor)
Mussolini would want to do this much in the same reasons that the rulers of ancient Rome built these extravagant temples for the public. Here Mussolini is both displaying his great wealth in funding these huge projects and he is also showing that he cares about the people of this age. He is providing a great public service in hopes to show both his wealth and reasons Rome will prosper under his reign.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:53AM:
haoki: Because the Forum Romanum was understood as the core of Republic Rome--even in its marshy state in the time of Romulus, it was a burial site for Palatine Hill dwellers--adding onto the the very heart of the city was a symbolic gesture of establishing one's presence and legitimizing one's reign. In Augustus's forum, the Temple of Mars Ultor stood as the centerpiece of the structure. Although the temple included statues of Mars, Venus, and the deified Caesar, in the porticos and exedras, Augustus presented himself as one of the summi viri, which included Aeneas and Romulus. It signified the coming of a new and peaceful age. Kleiner compares Augustus's message through architecture to that of Vespasian: "Vespasian, like Augustus, had gained supreme power after a war pitting Roman against Roman, and he too wanted to hammer home the message that he had restored peace to Italy" (127). In this way, an emperor would be able to display the grand influence he had on the Roman people through the many sculptures, friezes, temples, and physical orientation of the structure.
If I were emperor, I would construct my own forum to the right of Augustus's, paralleling the layout of Julius Caesar's in order to make an aesthetic balance (when seen from a bird's eye view). Although the structure would not be a square layout like Vespasian's, I would like it to have similar democratic undertones like the Templum Pacis. Instead of displaying booty, I would install Roman art in the museum to celebrate the heritage of the people. In fact, I believe that this is what Mussolini had in mind when he excavated the Imperial Fora. He wanted to boost his campaign by celebrating the history of Italy, glorifying the past, and igniting a unified sense of pride in the people.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:53AM:
mahorn!:
The Imperial for a is a conglermeration of separate emperial works. Each emperor wanted to add their own mark at the of heart of the Roma. Julius Cesar headed the first renovation. No one person had ever staked out such territory for himself before in the history of Rome. Pompey built and donated a theater in his name, but to rebuild the center of Rome was a transformation of Roman politics. Julius intention was not to build a piece of architectural beauty or donate a new function to the people of Rome. The Forum of Cesar was built to assert Julius a territory in his name at the of his empire. Any addition later on were made in the same spirit, and were so common that it became common practice for an emperor to leave his signature at the Imperial Fora. Augustus, the successor to Julius, built established this tradition. He built a forum that was larger than forum of Cesar, and contained many architectural gestures to his power and the legacy of his family. He built a temple to Mars Ultor to commend the military potency of Julius Cesar, and also to rectify his assassination. He filled the forum with statues and clypeus virtutus (shields) so that when the Romans would walk through the forum they would be able to see the power of his lineage. Vespesian and Trajan and made reinvented some details of the forum, and other emperors constructed temples - all in line with the tradition of the work of the dictator. When Mussoliini came to power in the 30s, he also wanted to enunciate his role as a dictator. Instead of adding to the forum, he brought out from underneath the ground. His work was synonomous with adding to it, and he too could join the line of emperors that had left their signature on the Imperial fora. If I were to build my own forum? I want lots of pillars. I am confused but I am powerful, and the pillars would block and hold, obscure and sway. I want a big sculpture of myself, naked like a nero. I want trees at the outskirts. People should be able to breathe fresh air. The must be aware of the maziness of the city.
Life is a maze And there is a fee. I will let you gaze. But only at me.
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Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:54AM:
mahorn:
THIS AINT NO CAD!
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:54AM:
lwilliams: As we have already established in this class, architecture is a very powerful tool for swaying public opinion, shaping society, and exerting power. Not only is a public work, such as a forum, the most visible form of art, it is also the most controlling; controlling the space, controlling the way people move about and experience their daily lives. The forum represented the vital center of Rome and Roman Empire, built to inspire awe in citizen and foreigner alike as they gathered in this most public space. Julius Caesar took this opportunity to exert his influence by building a new forum adjacent to the Roman Forum. Although this work was for the use of the people, a public gift, the project firmly promoted Caesar as an individual. Not only was it named after him, it realigned the entire forum, new senate house and all, to sit along the axis defined by his space. The temple it housed served equally to confirm his power as god-given as it was to honor Venus (Caesar’s purported ancestor). Augustus followed his adoptive father’s example, building a forum with his own name. Augustus’s forum also housed a temple that, though public in nature, was geared towards self-promotion, as one of the ‘gods’ it honored was his own adopted father, Caesar. Vespasian’s Temple of Peace, another addition in line with the previous forums, brought further public purpose to the project by creating a space for common man to enjoy leisure and art. This temple, built upon the spoils of war, reminded Roman citizens of the benefits that an emperor can provide his people, and promoted the notion that Vespasian had restored peace to the empire.
If I were an emperor, I would certainly feel the need to continue in the tradition of adding my own mark to the imperial fora. While it may be dangerous to be overly extravagant with a project (one wouldn’t want to conjure up analogies to Neros’s Domus Aurea), I would want my forum to outshine its predecessors. This would best be done in the guise of a place that is for the good of the public, as Vespasian provided a lavish amenity typically reserved for the upper crust of society. I would want a place that included gardens and libraries, often not available to the average Roman citizen, and enclosed a temple dedicated to a god often associated with myself, thus showing at once my piety and linking myself to the divine.
Mussolini likewise took advantage of the grand and public nature of the imperial fora. His overtly visible project of excavating them stirred national pride and demonstrated the kind of beneficial work that came from having a powerful leader.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 10:58AM:
bborgolini:
The forums of Rome were used primarily as gathering places, and for this reason Emperors used these areas to convey their dominance to their subjects. Through the addition of larger, even more prominent temples and fora, an Emperor could establish himself as greater than his predecessor. Each Emperor would want to gain greater support of the people, proving that they were the best.
If I were to make an addition to the Roman Forum, I would build a forum with large architectural features mirroring those of my predecessors, but with more dominance. The scale of the architectural features in my forum would be synonymous with the grand scale of my ruling and empire. Mussolini believed that by excavating the Roman Forum he could bring himself to a comparable level of power that the Roman Emperors achieved, reflecting his desire to revive the idea of a Great Roman Empire. His desire was to be as powerful as, say, AUgustus or Vespasian.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 11:09AM:
rdwarner: Emperors added to the roman forum because it both legitimized their reign over Rome, but also benefited the people of Rome in supporting its ancient legacy. The Roman forum, as one of the first and longest lasting pieces of Roman architecture, was first a sign of the great successes of republican Rome, and while Augustus obviously didn't uphold the Republican standard, he wanted to keep that memory alive in the people and glorify Rome by adding to the historic site. There is a clear shift to the personality of the fora as we see different architectural features, increased use of marble and hellenistic styles, and also the change in orientation the forum undergoes throughout the various emperors. This is again in line with the dual goal of highlighting the glory of the ancient Roman senate and republican ways, while also making a name for one's self as a benevolent emperor.
If I were emperor I would follow this model exactly. This role of public benefactor is not unusual to any culture as rulers/emperors/presidents want to be loved by their people, and often great public monuments are a way of ensuring that. It's also a great way to put your stamp on Rome for all future generations to revere and to uphold the legacy of emperors past. While it does provide a public space for the people of Rome, I think most emperors were thinking of this legacy when they added the fora to this great architectural feature.
Mussolini is in turn no different. As a fascist ruler (and kind of a nut, if you ask me), he wanted to harken back to a time of great success and, fittingly, imperial dictatorship. While the forum was a sign of public participation and Roman glory through collaboration and republic ideals, the goal of Mussolini's work was clearly to link his presidency to the great emperors of Rome and infuse this idea of international prowess and Roman glory into their collective conscious. It's funny, and sort of a silver lining, that such a crazy person could add so much to archaeological preservation and uncovering of one of the greatest architectural features of history.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 11:16AM:
jmorris: adding to the forum helped the emperors relate to past great emperors> it also followed in augustus approach of rebuilding roman so that he has a connection to the people and rome. building huge public works would always help boost peoples oppinions about the emperor. Mussolini excavated the roman forum to help relate his reign to that of the great roman empire since Rome is very proud of its heritage. He tore down a lot of houses and things to get to the monuments. We you visit today you can still find some of the foundation of the old houses that sat on top of it.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 11:39AM:
sspiller: The Roman Emperors built additions to the forum for a variety of reasons, the most important of which was buying their popularity. The forum was a public space for the citizens of Rome and when these Romans, for example, received a beautiful library and museum from Vespasian, they were appreciative and liked this emperor regardless of his skills as an emperor. Vespasian also used his forum to attempt to legitimize his role as ruler. Caesar used his forum to flaunt his famous ancestry as a direct descendent of Venus by building the Temple of Venus in the Forum Caesaris, Augustus played up the fact that the son of a God by creating the Temple of Mars Ultor to avenge his adopted father’s death. He claimed that he was destined to be the emperor of Rome. Vespasian doesn’t have this lucky ancestry, and therefore needed to win the approval of the Romans. This public center incorporated the distant, busy lives of the emperors with the more mundane and less lavish lives of the Roman public. They would spend their days in the forum of Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, etc. introducing these names into their daily lives.
If I were emperor, I, like Vespasian, would give the people of Rome the pleasure of leisure that would be accessible to all Romans. They are more likely, in a superficial sense, to appreciate a beautiful garden or public library, rather than something that would benefit few, such as a senate house. Mussolini led this effort for the same reason these emperors built the fora in the firs place: to gain popularity. If he were the one to lead the excavation, eventually people would begin to associate his name with the names of these ancient emperors, elevating his fascist dictatorship to something of the level of an emperor.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 11:49AM:
amarks: The Roman forums we a symbol to gain popularity and were also a central location in the Roman Empire. The forums are we used by the public for many civil functions (social and political functions), as it was supposed to be the forums where a gift to the people. Also the citizens are reminded of the greatness, wealth, power, etc. of the best of the Roman leaders. This might actually be the best place to view this, greatness and glorification of Rome in this one location. The art and architecture in these places is amazing. Some forums such as the Ara Pacis Augustae, depict the peace that the reign of the current emperor would bring to the city of Rome. These Roman forums in a way were made to trace their celestial lineage to the god of Rome. The forums being the “political heart of Rome”, so to speak, was a great place to commune the values and politics to the Roman people.
If I were to build my own forum I would probably make it a lot like Vespasian Temple. I like the idea of the garden where people and visitors are able to relax and enjoy the beauty and architecture of my glorious forum. I would try to make it as glorious and architecturally beautiful as possible to make sure people remember me. Also going with the smaller garden, not the peristyle garden courts, would give the idea that you are looking out for the people of the lower classes giving them a nice place to rest and relax. Especially since the forums where busy places with a lot of people coming and going all the time, I think that the people would enjoy my garden as a place to once again relax and take a load off after a busy day walking around.
Mussolini possibly could have decided to excavate the Fori Imperiali perhaps because he wanted to literally show the dominance and prosperity of Rome that the military and previous emperors of Rome had brought. By doing this he showed the Italians the greatness of Rome. Personally I think that Mussolini wanted to be sort of a present day Augustus. If he would be able to instill the people with the characteristics of the Romans, he in thought, would be a present day emperor.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 01:58PM:
cwelling: The Roman Forums symbolized many different things and were built most definitely for the Roman emperors to assert their power, wealth, and domination as the leaders of the Roman Empire. The reason these Forums were so extravagant and lavish was also to commemorate the lives the Emperors led and to honor their successes as military chiefs. The forums have historically been the literal and figurative center of Roman life. The first forum, the Roman forum, was located on the Palentine hill, next to where the Emperor’s lived. Julius Caesar was the first emperor to dedicate a forum to himself, which consequently set a precedent for the future leaders of Rome. His reasoning however was because he was competing with Senate and wanted to exude his power over them. Forums also were used to link emperor’s to famous lineage as Augustus did when he added on to the Forum Romanum. He wanted to be linking to the Julian dynasty by associating himself with Roman legacy. The beauty and grandeur of these beautiful Roman monuments captivated the people of Rome and to this day are remembered and honored.
If I were to create my own forum, I would want it to be a place where everyone would feel welcome, rather than making it all about my successes and accomplishments as a Roman leader as many of them did. I would make it a space where anyone and everyone could rest and relax, with perhaps a beautiful garden with fountains. The architecture would similar to that of Augustus’s because I too would want to honor the family members that came before me rather than it being like Caesar’s who was competing for complete power over society with the Senate.
Mussolini was determined to excavate the site of Fori Imperiali because he most likely wanted to improve his own image in the eyes of the Roman people by renovating such an important part of Roman history. Similar to other Roman emperors Mussolini was linking himself to the past accomplishments by bringing them back into the light of society.
Posted at Mar 18/2011 09:32PM:
ylee: For Roman Emperors, building forums was the continuation of building self-image through art and architecture. Julio-Claudian emperors had put substantial amount of deliberate efforts to create divine images through sculptures with ever-young features and ideal body components and frequent associations with divine figures including Venus and Cupid. While such sculptural works are mainly private manifestation of self-image, building forums was an act of manifesting greatness of Rome and the emperor himself to the Roman public. Forums of the Roman world served multiple purposes not only for the senators but also for mass public. Acting as a center of public life in Rome, forums indeed served a momentous role symbolically too. If I were an Emperor, building up my legitimacy of reign would seem necessary. As other emperors had done, I would want to redirect the focus of the city and make my forum the new center. In order to do so, my forum would need the most grandeur and elegant details surpassing the former ones. If I conquered a new region and expanded the Empire, using new and exotic booties from the region, I would adorn the forum and let the Roman public who the new ruler is. Mussolini led a huge effort to excavate the Fori Imperiali, among other sites, during the 20th Century. I believe he did so in order to burrow the symbolic legitimacy from the ancient Rome. Moreover, no one would have been able to execute such a project that requires a lot of money, time and control. By excavating the most symbolically central part of the Roman Empire, Mussolini boasted his power while let Italian mass know who the controller is.
